Factors Influencing participation

• State of Play Survey 2022-23, Change our Game, Victorian Government, (June 2023). Between October and November 2022, more than 670 Victorians answered questions on a range of topics relating to gender equality in sport, including values and behaviour in community sport, elite sport, sports media and coverage, leadership opportunities and perceptions, and experiences working and volunteering in sport. The State of Play Survey revealed that overall, while there are some positive attitudes towards women and girls in sport and their right to equal opportunities and access, change is still required in terms of underlying attitudes and behaviours. Consistently throughout the survey, men were less likely than women to perceive gender inequality in various aspects of sport. In relation to facilities some of the key insights were:
  • 28% of women have considered leaving their club due to inequitable treatment.
  • Women are 2.5x more likely to report feeling unwelcome at their sporting club compared to men.
  • Of people who played community sport, women were less likely than men to agree that club facilities were shared equally between men and women or that the main playing venue was shared equally.
• Make Space for Us, Women in Sport, (July 2022). This research, commissioned by Yorkshire Sport Foundation, is an important first step to understanding how teenage girls feel about being active outdoors in their local parks and green spaces. Girls use parks less and face many barriers to exercising. This comes from a lack of understanding of their needs in park design and the way society sees and treats them when they get there. These stifle enjoyment and limits their right to enjoy the wealth of health and wellbeing benefits of being active in the great outdoors. By listening to girls the report found:
  • Twice as many girls as boys feel unsafe exercising in their local park (49% cf. 26%)
  • Only 34% of girls enjoy exercising in their local park compared to 63% of boys
  • 73% of girls say feeling watched puts them off exercising in the park
  • 78% of girls say a lack of toilets and changing facilities make parks undesirable spaces
• Men as Allies: Supporting women and girls in community sport, Randle, E., Harris, M, Marshall, S., et al., La Trobe University, GippSport, Victorian Government: Change our Game, (2022). The sporting community is working hard to improve gender equality. Men, because of their power, influence and positions, have an important role as allies in levelling the playing field for women and girls. An ally is any man willing to advocate for, and speak up in support of, women and girls; even though they may personally benefit from existing gender inequality. This research provides practical tools to support men to be allies for gender equality in all aspects of community sport. For facilities advice includes: Support and advocate for dedicated spaces, restrooms, changing rooms and amenities that ensure privacy, safety and accessibility.
• Final Report Girls in Action Sports Project (GASP), Verity Cleland, et al., University of Tasmania supported by Tasmanian Government, (June 2021). The Girls in Action Sports Project (GASP) 2 was designed to better understand the enablers and barriers for girls in three male-dominated action sports – mountain biking, skateboarding and surfing. Lack of facilities for girls, in particular toilets (especially when girls are menstruating) were highlighted in several points.
• Females and physical activity What the research shows, VicHealth, (2019). Create female-friendly environments Consider females’ needs when designing or updating activity spaces, such as parks, leisure centres/gyms, courts and pools2. For example, improving facilities, such as lighting, security and private and family changing rooms, and offering childcare, hair driers and well-lit mirrors, can help women feel safer, more comfortable and welcome. Changing the layout of activity spaces, such as adding doors, partitions or curtains, or using private rooms for classes, can make females feel less exposed and judged when exercising. Running smaller groups also helps females feel less exposed. In addition, having female-only staff, classes and gyms may help females feel more comfortable and encourage them to be more active.
• The 2018 Tucker Center Research Report, Developing physically active girls: An evidence-based multidisciplinary approach, Tucker Center for Research on Girls and Women in Sport, (2018). Facilities are primarily covered as part of the Environmental Barriers (p.17) highlighting Facilities and Programming, Safety, Proximity, Cost, Male Dominated, Lack of Sensitivity, although there are some other references throughout the report as well.
• Her Life Depends on It III: Sport, Physical Activity, and the Health and Well-Being of American Girls and Women, Staurowsky, Ellen J.; De Souza, Mary Jane; Miller, Kathleen E., Women’s Sports Foundation, (2015). Third edition of a comprehensive report that reviews existing and emerging research on the links between participation in sport and physical activity and the health and wellbeing of American girls and women. Not really specific to women and facilities but highlights this case study: Having facility support for programs was found to have a positive impact on the amount of time girls participated in physical activity in a study that examined the degree to which schools were open to sharing facilities with community programs. For schools that entered into arrangements with afterschool community programs, there was an increase in the number of minutes girls engaged in after-school physical activity.
• Go Where Women Are, Sport England, (2015). An in-depth look at engaging women and girls in sport and exercise, by exploring our current understanding of women, their relevant motivations, barriers and triggers to getting more active, and what this means for sports and exercise activities and initiatives.

• Team sports, running, walking: activity-specific associations with perceived environmental factors in adolescents, Dias AF; Fochesatto CF; Crochemore-Silva I; et al., Ciencia and Saude Coletiva, Volume 27(5), pp.1975-1988, (May 2022). This study aimed to analyze the association between the practice of different types of physical activity (PA) with perceived environmental factors in boys and girls adolescents. Were evaluated 1,130 adolescents from Porto Alegre, Brazil. To evaluate different PA, students answered whether or not they practiced walking, running, team sports, and others general PA. Perceived environmental factors were assessed through Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale for Youth (NEWS-Y). Analyses were performed using logistic regression. Adolescents who reported perceiving a distance up to 20 minutes to walking/running track, had their chances of practicing all types of PA increased in the total sample and for girls. For walking, it was also found an association with access in adolescents. For girls, it was found an association between shortest distance to indoor recreation or exercise facility and other playing fields/court with running and team sports. Aesthetics and road safety were associated with team sports in adolescents. Other general PA were associated with park, bike/hiking/walking trails in the total sample and for girls. Therefore, for each type of PA, specific associations of perceived environmental factors were found.
• Facilitators and Barriers to Physical Activity and Sport Participation Experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Adults: A Mixed Method Review, Bridget Allen, Karla Canuto, John Robert Evans, et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 18(18), (September 2021). The need for culturally safe facilities, appropriate activities and inclusive, respectful staff were all described as facilitators and provide important insights for program providers.
• ‘There's a difference between tolerance and acceptance’: Exploring women's experiences of barriers to access in UK gyms, L.A. Turnock, Wellbeing, Space and Society, Volume 2, (August 2021). Drawing on 18 in-depth qualitative interviews with female gym staff and gym users, and ethnographic fieldwork conducted in four commercial gyms in the South and South-West of England, this article explores the experiential realities of women seeking to access gym training and the barriers they identify to equal access in these spaces. Findings examine four key ways in which gyms environment and the gendering of this space create barriers to women's access: through the sharp gender segregation of weights areas and emotional barriers crossing into this ‘male space’ creates; through insufficient equipment provision for women's needs and how this raises costs to women's participation; issues with the performance of masculinities in gym space and associated intimidation and harassment in increasingly (hetero)sexualised gym space; and how gym structures create the impression one is always ‘on show’, and subject to scrutiny.
• The environment contribution to gender differences in childhood obesity and organized sports engagement, Nogueira H; Costeira E Pereira MM; Costa D; et al., American journal of human biology, Volume 32(2), (March 2020). This study aims to analyze gender-specific associations between sports activity outside of school and obesity, observing to what extent the local built environment contributes to the patterns found. A total of 2253 children aged 6.0-11.0 years were assessed: 49.3% girls and 50.7% boys. Children's weight and height were measured, age and sex-specific BMI cut-off points were used to define normal vs overweight/obesity. Children's organized sports (OS) activity was assessed by questionnaire, and local facilities for children's engagement in OS were analyzed. Logistic regression models were computed, adjusted for confounding variables. Results showed greater overweight and obesity (25.1% vs 20.1%) and lower OS engagement (66.5% vs 73.8%) in girls as well as greater impact of OS engagement on weight status in girls (OR for having a normal weight = 1.434 in girls vs 1.043 in boys). Additionally, opportunities to engage in OS were scarce for girls. The gender gap in children's weight status and OS engagement might be enhanced by an environmental mismatch that undermines girls' opportunities to play sports. There should be more opportunities for girls to engage in their favorite sports as a means to tackle the obesity epidemic and to promote gender equality.
• Women and girls participation in male-dominated sports, Rochelle Eime, Aurélie Pankowiak, Meghan Casey, et.al., PASI/Federation University/Victoria University for the Victorian Government, (2020?). Has some quotes from women about their experiences of organisations not providing equal access to facilities/resources for women’s teams. “We [senior women] trained on the same night as the boys. I think it was the under-15s or under-13 boys. So they would get priority over the nets, so we either only had one net or we had to train on the oval without nets.” Or “… the running of the club, and no sanitary bins, and the boys are using that facility before we are and then it’s disgusting.”
• Promoting Team Sport Participation among Older Women, Stephanie West, Jill Naar, Julie Son, et al., Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 37(4), (October 2019). Six themes emerged related to ways P&R professionals can facilitate sport participation for older women: 1) tailored rules, 2) team organization and development, 3) player recruitment, 4) promotion outlets, 5) facilities and resources available, and 6) community and organizational support. Rule modifications were perceived as a way to help older women remain safe and free from sport-related injuries. Regarding facilities and resources, communities were seen as favoring youth sports in terms of funding, equipment, and access to facilities. Parks and Recreation (P&R) agencies are therefore recommended to provide a more equitable balance. Supporting and promoting opportunities for older adults to engage in sport within local communities supports the model of successful aging and promotes LTPA benefits for seniors.
• Associations between environmental attributes of facilities and female participation in sport: a systematic review, Hanlon, Clare; Jenkin, Claire; Craike, Melinda, Managing Sport and Leisure, Volume 24(5), pp.294-306, (September 2019). Articles were identified through seven databases and included if female specific results were reported on the association between attributes of the physical environment and sports participation. The search yielded 3118 articles, 24 met the criteria. Most studies were moderate quality and in terms of life stage focused on adolescent girls. Environmental attributes of facilities including perceived safety, convenient location and suitable amenities in sport and school facilities were associated with female participation in sport. Attributes of the physical environment may influence female participation in sport. Conclusions are tentative based on minimal studies in this area. More attention to identify environmental attributes of facilities associated with encouraging female participation in sport across their transitional life stage is required to enhance understanding and guide facility development.
• The implications of female sport policy developments for the community-level sport sector: a perspective from Victoria, Australia, M. Casey, J. Fowlie, M. Charity, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 11(4), pp.657-678, (July 2019). This study examined trends in sport participation among females over a six-year period (2011–2016) within five popular sports, by age and region. It also identified future challenges community sports face in increasing female sport participation. Overall, there was an absence of discussion about gender equity policies or practices in term of facility usage and therefore community sport may need assistance in this area. This is important, as the way in which sports facilities are used is unlikely to change unless the values, culture and practices of sport organisations are challenged.
• The relationship of sport participation to provision of sports facilities and socioeconomic status: a geographical analysis, Rochelle Eime, Jack Harvey, Melanie Charity, et.al., Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, Volume 41(3), pp.248-255, (June 2017). This study examined the geographical association between provision of sport facilities and participation in sport across an entire Australian state, using objective total enumerations of both, for a group of sports, with adjustment for the effect of socioeconomic status (SES). Better provision of sports facilities is generally associated with increased sport participation, but SES and region are also contributing factors.
• Do light sport facilities foster sports participation? A case study on the use of bark running tracks, J. Borgers, B. Vanreusel, S. Vos, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 8(2), pp.287-304, (2016). Generally, not only running experience but also socio-demographic variables, such as gender and age, appear to play an important role in explaining patterns of use of BRTs. That is, in comparison to general running, where men are overrepresented compared to women (e.g. Scheerder et al. 2015), women seem to be more eager to use BRTs than men. As this may be related to the need for a safe social climate for sports participation among women (Shenassa et al. 2006), this is an important feature to take into account from a policy perspective. The fact that patterns of use differ with regard to age also confirms that the provision and promotion of sport facilities should be adapted to the specific life phase of participants.
• Socioecological factors potentially associated with participation in physical activity and sport: A longitudinal study of adolescent girls, Rochelle Eime, Meghan Casey, Jack Harvey, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 18(6), pp.684-690, (November 2015). The access to facilities score significantly increased within each cohort over time and between cohorts, indicating that access to PA opportunities increased steadily throughout adolescence. Other evidence suggests that a greater number of available PA facilities is associated with increased PA levels. More specifically, access to facilities along with family support have been found to be strong mediators specifically between the association between socio-economic status (SES) and club sport participation. Studies have also reported that for adolescents, the number of nearby facilities and number of nearby parks correlates positively with their PA. This is supported by Scott et al. who states that both the individual facility perceptions and the total number of facilities perceived was associated with increased PA for adolescent females. Our study showed that as girls aged fewer perceived that there was a lack of opportunity or resources for PA. This was in contrast to a cross-sectional study in the United States that reported that as young people aged (from Grade 7 to University freshman) they were more likely to identify a lack of community opportunities (e.g. lack of specific sports team to join/participate in) and resources (lack of facilities/variety of facilities) for PA. This difference may be due to the dominance of the club sport system in Australia compared to the United States.
• Barriers to women’s participation in sport and active recreation, Dhirender Kaim, International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health, Volume 2(1), pp.96-98, (August 2015). The literature shows that the participation of women and girls in sport and active recreation fluctuates throughout the lifecycle. At different stages of life, many events and factors appear to negatively influence women’s and girls’ participation. The literature had also shown that there are many different barriers of women’s participation, and the barriers to girls’ and adolescents’ participation. These barriers are identified through a review of literature. 3.9 Lack of facilities A lack of community facilities is a barrier to participation. 4.4 Poor access to or availability of venues and places to participate and a lack of appropriate facilities for women Poor access to venues, including venues with appropriate facilities, is a barrier to participation for young women, disabled women and rural women. Poor access can be compounded by a lack of transport and a lack of information on available facilities. A lack of physical access to premises and a lack of venues and facilities with suitable equipment are barriers for disabled women. 4.9 Cultural factors and social norms Cultural factors can also exacerbate the experience of other barriers, such as competing priorities, lack of facilities, lack of access to programs, and lack of leisure companions.
• Proximity to Sports Facilities and Sports Participation for Adolescents in Germany, Anne Reimers, Matthias Wagner, Seraphim Alvanides, et al., PLOS One, (March 2014). A sample of 1,768 adolescents aged 11–17 years old and living in 161 German communities was examined. Distances to the nearest sports facilities were calculated as an indicator of proximity to sports facilities using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Participation in specific leisure-time sports activities in sports clubs was assessed using a self-report questionnaire and individual-level socio-demographic variables were derived from a parent questionnaire. The logisitic regression analyses showed that girls residing longer distances from the nearest gym were less likely to engage in indoor sports activities; a significant interaction between distances to gyms and level of urbanization was identified. Decomposition of the interaction term showed that for adolescent girls living in rural areas participation in indoor sports activities was positively associated with gym proximity. Proximity to tennis courts and indoor pools was not associated with participation in tennis or water sports, respectively.
• The correlates of sports participation in Europe, Paul Downward, Fernando Lera-López, Simona Rasciute, European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 14(6), pp.592-602, (2014). The provision of sports facilities is of more importance for males, which may indicate a male-oriented nature of the sports facilities, for example, the gym. However, the number of adults and the number of children in the household reduce the probability of sports participation by females. Therefore, higher provision of childcare may be important if female participation is to be increased.
• Women's snowboarding – some experiences and perceptions of competition, Sisjord, Mari Kristin, Leisure Studies, Volume 32(5), pp.507, (December 2013). This article focuses on female snowboarders' experiences with, and perceptions of, snowboard competitions. The article is based on a study conducted at an international women's snowboard camp. The purpose of the camp was to discuss strategies for promoting females' participation in the snowboard organisations and in snowboard competition. Interviews were held with eight participants aged 18–31 years. Most of the participants had been previously involved in competition. Their experience had been both negative and positive. Most of the participants perceived snowboard facilities (Big air and Half-pipe) as being too large for females and a possible constraint on participation. Moreover, the study's findings reveal ideas concerning alternative competition formats as well as arguments for ‘women-only’ sessions as a feasible way to reach more female snowboarders, to provide skill enhancement, and to increase participation in the competitions. The findings are discussed in light of the development of snowboarding and Bourdieu's theoretical framework.
• Family support and ease of access link socio-economic status and sports club membership in adolescent girls: a mediation study, Rochelle Eime, Jack Harvey, Melinda Craike, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 10, Article number: 50, (2013). The results of this study indicate that participation in club sport among both younger and older adolescent girls is strongly positively associated with the SES of both their neighbourhoods and their households, particularly in metropolitan areas. These associations are most strongly mediated by family support and by access to facilities. Consequently, in order to facilitate and promote greater participation in club sport among adolescent girls from low SES neighbourhoods and households, strategies should target modifiable determinants such as facility access and parental support. This will involve improving access to sports facilities, and promoting, encouraging, and assisting parents to provide support for their daughters’ participation in sports clubs. Strategies could include an educational social marketing campaign targeting parents that emphasises the positive health benefits of sports club involvement and the key role that parents play in promoting and facilitating this involvement. An educational program and resources outlining these sports club benefits to parents and adolescents could also be based at secondary schools. Sport and recreation facility planning at the local and state government level also needs to be sensitive to the needs of women and girls.
• Balancing safety and autonomy: structural and social barriers affecting the exercise participation of women with disabilities in community recreation and fitness facilities, D.E. Rolfe, K. Yoshida, R. Renwick, et al., Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, Volume 4(2), pp.265-283, (2012). A lack of accessible facilities within the community has been identified as a major limiting factor to exercise participation among women with disabilities. To increase exercise participation among women with disabilities, we need to understand the structural and social barriers that they face within community recreation and fitness facilities. These findings suggest that simply removing structural barriers and providing ‘accessible’ equipment is not sufficient to truly increase facility accessibility. Although accessibility features within the built environment of community facilities (e.g. elevators, pool-chair lifts and grab bars) can provide increased safety and accessibility to participants, a lack of maintenance and/or inadequate staff training in their use may limit women’s autonomous use of facilities. Training of staff members to work with women with disabilities is also necessary to address social barriers to women’s exercise participation in community recreation and fitness facilities.

• Fair Access Policy Roadmap, Victorian Government, (August 2022). Is set to deliver equitable access to publicly owned community sports infrastructure across the state, helping to level the playing field for women and girls in community sport.
• Football Her Way, Football Victoria’s Vision for Women and Girls Football, Football Victoria, (September 2021). Football Victoria will collaboratively drive #FootballHerWay by positively impacting our culture, values, policies, planning, practices and programs with each of us committed to annually achieving our strategic outcomes. Includes Facilities as a key strategic outcome.
• Her Sport, Her Way strategy, NSW Government, (2021). Stakeholder consultations provided many stories about female teams and individual athletes not receiving equal access to playing spaces, training venues and appropriate sport programs and other resources such as equipment. Even when women and girls received access to the best quality facilities, they were often scheduled at the worst times. Entrenched attitudes and unconscious bias, particularly around traditionally male sports, have influenced resource allocation and limited the opportunities for women and girls.
• Women's Participation in Sport and Recreation in Melbourne's West | Action Plan for change 2020-2025, Victorian Government, (2020). Provides strategic direction to partners on challenging the gendered barriers to women’s participation in sport and active recreation. Strategic priority 2: Welcoming Facilities: Plan and deliver physical environments with equitable access to facilities and spaces for women and girls to participate and enjoy their involvement in sport and active recreation.
• Infrastructure Strategy, NSW Football, (2020). Talks about now being the time to invest in improved football facilities for girls and women to accompany the growing demand we are experiencing. “Historically established and ageing facilities not catering for all gender use, and not adequately supporting participation by women and girls”. Historically for football, facilities have been primarily designed to meet the needs of male participants, but to encourage more women and girls to participate in sport today as a player or official, more user-friendly facilities are required. (p.18 has some examples).

• Gender Equity in Recreational Sport: Optimizing Facility Use workshops, Canadian Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA)/YouTube, (2022).
  • WORKSHOP #1: Creating a Strong Culture and Shared Commitment, (17 February 2022). This workshop focused on: Creating a Welcoming Environment (apart from the physical infrastructure, which will be addressed in the Facility Design workshop); Intersectionality – helping service providers understand how to serve girls, women and gender diverse people who have overlapping identities, characteristics, and experiences; The concept of Social Hubs and Disrupting Social Norms.
  • Workshop #2: Understanding How Facility Design Can Attract and Encourage Use, (29 March 2022). This workshop focused on: Facility infrastructure design that is universal (“gender mainstreaming”) and/or gender-friendly in nature and Methods to “make the case” for facility design changes (small changes, retrofits, new builds) in support of gender equity to a variety of stakeholders (e.g., funders, current participants, senior volunteers and staff).
  • Workshop #3: Evaluating Outcomes Best Questions and Data, (31 March 2022). This workshop focused on: Outcome evaluation in general with specific application to gender equity initiatives and understanding the impact of this work.
  • WORKSHOP #4: Gender Equity in Recreational Sport: Optimizing Facility Use, (1 April 2022). This workshop focused on: exploring non-traditional ways of understanding the community and, specifically, those who do not typically participate in recreation and Creative engagement of partners to optimize recruitment and retention of those women and girls who are not currently participating in local recreational sport.

• Physically literate girls: the need for schools to develop girls who are physically literate, ACHPER Victoria, Victoria University and the Office for Women in Sport and Recreation, (2020). According to recent research, Australia is ranked one of the worst performers for 11–17 year old girls globally. Over 90% of girls surveyed reported insufficient levels of physical activity, with a marked decrease in sport participation by girls during the 12–14 years of age and from 17+ years. As girls grow older, they report lower levels of enjoyment, confidence, competence and understanding, particularly during the teenage years. ACHPER Victoria has worked with Victoria University and partnered with the Office for Women in Sport and Recreation (Change Our Game) to understand why this is, and how we can work together as communities to help change these statistics for the better. A new infographic designed to help communicate research findings and provide a clear pathway for schools and communities to create better opportunities for girls to become physically literate.
• Active Lives: Children and Young People Survey - Attitudes towards sport and physical activity, Sport England, (March 2019). Insights into the attitudes of children and young people towards sport and physical activity.
  • Girls are less likely to say they enjoy or feel confident about doing sport and physical activity (58% of boys enjoy it, compared to 43% of girls, and 47% of boys feel confident, compared to 31% of girls). Among children aged 5-7, boys are more likely to love playing sport, while girls are more likely to love being active. Children from the least affluent families are less likely to enjoy activity than those from the most affluent families, and previous research shows they are also far less likely to be active. Black children are more physically literate than other ethnic groups—driven by boys, but they're less active than the population as a whole.

• What a girl wants: A mixed-methods study of gender differences in the barriers to and enablers of riding a bike in Australia, Lauren Pearson, Sandy Reeder, Belinda Gabbe, et al., Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 94, pp.453-465, (April 2023). Women have specific concerns about riding on the road alongside motor vehicle traffic and the associated risks, and a lack of confidence in their ability and knowledge of bike riding and bikes themselves. It is imperative that women’s perspectives and needs are considered in the planning and promotion of bike riding globally to prevent and tackle gendered inequities.
• Are gender-stereotyped attitudes and beliefs in fathers and daughters associated with girls’ perceived motor competence? India Dechrai, Emiliano Mazzoli, Lisa Hanna, et al., Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, (6 June 2022). This study aimed to examine the association between father and daughter gender-stereotyped attitudes/beliefs and girls’ PMC. Girls with more gender-stereotyped attitudes have lower motor skill perceptions, which may impact negatively on physical activity and sport participation. Future interventions aimed at reducing sociocultural gender stereotypes in children may improve girls’ motor skill perception and positively impact physical activity.
• The effectiveness of a community-based fundamental motor skill intervention in children aged 3-8 years: Results of the “Multimove for Kids” project, Bardid F, Lenoir M, Huyben F, et al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport , Volume 20(2), pp.184-189, (2017). This study examined the effectiveness of a 30-week fundamental motor skill program in typically developing young children, and investigated possible gender differences. The intervention group (N=523) of 280 boys and 243 girls was compared to a control group (N=469) of 233 boys and 236 girls. The intervention group received 60 minutes of motor skill instruction weekly, delivered by trained instructors in a child care setting; the control group received no specific instruction. The intervention group demonstrated significantly better scores on object control tests, compared to the control group. The gains in object control were greater for boys than girls within the intervention group, but girls had greater gains in locomotor skills than boys. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of motor skill instruction in a community setting. The authors speculate that gender differences may be due to instructional strategies.
• Global self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and physical activity in children: A longitudinal cohort study, Noordstar J, van der Net J, Kak S, et al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 22, pp.83-90, (January 2016). Two groups of Dutch children were followed; one group from kindergarten to grade 2 and the other group from grades 2 to 4. This study found that an increase in global self-esteem was significantly associated with perceived athletic competence and the amount of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for girls, but not for boys. Perceived athletic competence declined slightly over time in boys, but remained stable in girls. The authors speculate that the decline in boys was due to their greater participation in vigorous activity. Because boys participated more in MVPA than girls, they were also more exposed to situations in which they could compare their athletic performance with their peers, resulting in a decline in perceived athletic competence. Other studies have shown similar responses among boys and girls and the authors offer no clear explanation for the results in this study.
• Associations between young children's perceived and actual ball skill competence and physical activity, Barnett L, Ridgers N, Salmon J, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 18(2), pp.167-171, (March 2015). A total of 102 children (56% boys, 44% girls) aged 4 to 8 years completed assessments. The results showed that girls had lower perceived and actual object control competence and were less active than boys. Actual object control competence was positively associated with perceived object control competence and this relationship did not differ by sex. However, neither actual nor perceived object control competence was associated with moderate to vigorous physical activity. Young children's perceived ball skill abilities appear to relate to actual competence. In older children, object control skill is associated with physical activity, so targeting young children's object control skills may be an intervention priority.
• Skeletal maturation, fundamental motor skills and motor coordination in children 7–10 years, Freitas D, Lausen B, Maia J, et al., Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 33(9), pp.924-934, (2015). This study looked at the relationship between skeletal age and fundamental motor skills (FMS) and gross motor coordination (GMC) in a large sample (N=429 children, 213 boys and 216 girls). Skeletal maturity is influenced by gender. However, this study found that skeletal age alone, or interacting with body size, had a negligible influence on FMS and GMC, accounting for only 9% of the variance.
• Contribution of organized and non-organized activity to children's motor skills and fitness, Hardy L, O’Hara B, Rogers K, et al., Journal of School Health, Volume 84(11), pp.690-696, (2014). This study examined the associations between children's organised physical activity (OPA), non-organised physical activity (NOPA) and two health-related outcomes—fundamental movement skill (FMS) and fitness in a sample of children aged 10 to 16 years. The authors concluded that both OPA and NOPA are important contributors to children's health-related outcomes. Among the girls, OPA was more strongly associated with both fitness and FMS competency. These findings support the importance of providing children with opportunities to engage in a range of daily physical activities, both organised (school physical education programs and school sport) and non-organised activities (active transport to school, play and social sport).
• Benefits of early development of eye-hand coordination: Evidence from the LOOK longitudinal study, Telford RD, Cunningham R, Telford RM, et al., Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 23(5), e263-269, (2013). Data from the LOOK Study was used to investigate the longitudinal and cross-sectional relationships between eye-hand coordination (EHC) and cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity, per cent body fat, body image, and organised sport participation in 406 boys and 384 girls at both 8 and 10 years of age. Cross-sectional analyses showed that boys and girls with better EHC were significantly fitter. A longitudinal relationship showed that girls who improved their EHC over the two years became fitter. There was also evidence that children with better EHC possessed a more positive body image. At 8 years of age, boys and girls participating in organised sport possessed better EHC than non-participants. These data provide evidence for the premise that early acquisition of this single motor skill promotes the development of a child's fitness, body image and participation in sport.
• Child, family and environmental correlates of children's motor skill proficiency, Barnett L, Hinkley T, Okely A, et al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 16(4), pp.332-336, (2013). This study looked at what factors were correlated with motor skill proficiency among 76 Australian preschool children, 34 boys and 42 girls (mean age 4.1 years). The researchers found that age, prior swimming lessons, and access to home exercise/sports equipment were positively associated with motor skill proficiency. These factors explained 20% of the variance in motor skill. In addition, gender, parental involvement in play activity, and the amount of unstructured physical activity that was classified as moderate-to-vigorous in intensity, accounted for 32% of the variance in object control skill.
• Sport motor competencies and the experience of social recognition among peers in physical education – a video-based study, Grimminger E, Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Volume 18(5), pp.506-519, (2013). Being recognised as a competent and accepted member in the peer group is one of the most important basic human needs for children and adolescents. However, it is the peer group itself that decides which competencies are valued and which are not. Through this process a social order, as well as peer power constellations, is created. This study aimed to determine if, and how, sport motor competencies are used as a criterion for recognition or non-recognition among peers. The results of this study show that sport motor competencies and the social position in a peer group are significantly related. However, the findings were only significant for boys’ peer group and not for girls. The authors concluded that sport motor competencies play an important role in the everyday struggles of children for recognition within their peer group.

• How young girls are being inspired to find themselves through football, Suzanne Wrack, The Guardian, (27 April 2021). Debra is Shalukah’s role model through a Football Beyond Borders programme designed to allow girls to ‘own the pitch’. “This is what we do, we literally use the power of football to inspire girls, to get girls talking, to get girls active, to get girls enjoying themselves, making positive relationships. Football at the elite level has moved so far and is so removed from that.”
• #FITSPO a flop at inspiring women to get active: New This Girl Can campaign focuses on the feeling not the scales, VicHealth media release, (1 March 2020). While it might be popular on Instagram, new research from health promotion foundation VicHealth has found most Victorian women are turned off exercise by images of taut and toned #FITSPO influencers. Key findings from a survey of over 1000 Victorian women found that: around two-thirds of women (66%) aren’t motivated by #FITSPO images of women on Instagram; over three-quarters of women find seeing women of all different body shapes getting active motivating; a third of women feel bad or inadequate about their own bodies and fitness when they see #FITSPO images on Instagram; and, almost 80% of women want to see more women with a range of body shapes included in physical activity advertising.
• Female sporting role models are more visible than ever, and it's making a difference, Richard Hinds, op-ed, ABC Offsiders, (17 February 2020). Outside the mostly individual achievements of tennis stars or Olympic athletes, there has never been a time when so many high profile female sports have made sports editors at least think twice before defaulting to the regular male back page stories plucked from pre-season AFL and NFL training sessions.
• AFLW inspires more women to play Australian Football, Roy Morgan, (22 March 2019). Over 550,000 Australian women now play one of the four main football codes. The success of the AFLW in encouraging women and girls to play Australian Football is evident by the growth in female participation in Australian Football over the last year up by 21,000 to 176,000 women.
• We need more female role models in sport to inspire the next generation, Dr Kristy Howells, Dr Laura Gubby, Dr Katie Dray and Dr Hayley Mills, Canterbury Christ Church University, (26 June 2018). Academics from Childhood and Education Sciences and Sport and Exercise Science explain why the visibility of women in sport at all levels is essential to inspire females to continue with physical activity.
• Kids across Australia need more female sport role models, Commonwealth Bank, (21 January 2018). While interest in women’s sport in Australia is soaring, two thirds of Australians (68 per cent) believe our kids should have more exposure to female sporting role models, new CommBank research reveals.
• AusPlay: Australian kids need active, sporty parents, Australian Sports Commission, (2017). AusPlay results confirm a high correlation between a parent’s engagement in sport and that of their child, indicating that active parents can be a positive influence on their children. Nearly 90 per cent of kids with at least one parent who plays and volunteers in sport are active in organised sport or physical activity outside school.
• The Power of Role Models, Football Federation Australia, from the Women's Football Development Guide, p.36, (May 2016). If a girl has never seen women participating in sport, it will be virtually impossible for her to imagine playing herself. What can you do to raise awareness of female role models?
• Why do girls need athletic role models? SIRC Blog, (10 June 2015). When role models are mentioned in sport, the first thing that comes to mind are high profile celebrities. While positive role models can be found in amateur and professional sports, it's the people they see every day that makes the biggest difference.

• Mentoring Program, Women Sport Australia, (accessed 14 March 2023). Mentoring is a proven and practical way to encourage the participation and advancement of women in the workforce. The creation of supportive ‘role-model’ based relationships allows a more experienced individual to guide, encourage and support the mentee as she strives to achieve identified aspirations and goals.
• 20x20: If she can't see it, she can't be it, Federation of Irish Sport, (accessed 15 March 2023). The 20×20 Campaign ran Oct 2018 to Oct 2020 and while the message lives on, the campaign has come to a close. 20×20 was about creating a cultural shift in our perception of girls and women in sport. By increasing visibility of women’s sport it will become a greater part of who we are and what we follow.
  • Final event press release, (22 October 2020). Research shows 20×20 has had a strong impact on Irish culture around women in sport – but there’s still more to be done.
    • 80%of the population are more of aware of women’s sport since the launch of 20×20.
    • 61% are more likely to support women’s sport since the launch of 2020.
    • 75% of men say 20×20 changed their mindset positively towards women’s sport.
    • 42% of women say they are participating in more sport and physical activity than in 2018 due to awareness of 20×20.
    • 50% of the population and 60% of females say they would be more inclined to purchase from brands that support women’s sport.
  • Along came a Spider: 20x20 Final Research Results, Behaviour and Attitudes, (2020). Very strong improvement in the perception of women's sport in the last two years. While the shift has been across all demographics, it is higher amongst males of all ages and those who are aware of the 20x20 initiative.

• State of Play Survey 2022-23, Change our Game, Victorian Government, (June 2023). Between October and November 2022, more than 670 Victorians answered questions on a range of topics relating to gender equality in sport, including values and behaviour in community sport, elite sport, sports media and coverage, leadership opportunities and perceptions, and experiences working and volunteering in sport. The State of Play Survey revealed that overall, while there are some positive attitudes towards women and girls in sport and their right to equal opportunities and access, change is still required in terms of underlying attitudes and behaviours. Consistently throughout the survey, men were less likely than women to perceive gender inequality in various aspects of sport. In relation to role models, parents of boys were significantly more likely to say their son had elite athletes they considered as role models compared to parents of girls.
• In the Game: Enabling Muslim girls to play sport and be active, Boz, T, Halilovich, H, La Trobe University, GippSport, Victorian Government: Change our Game, (2022). The experiences of Muslim girls and women participating in sport and physical activity are diverse, and can be influenced by a range of factors, including social, cultural, religious and economic factors. This summary outlines key findings from research that examined barriers to participation in sport and physical activity by Muslim girls, and highlights opportunities and solutions to overcoming these barriers. Some of the key barriers and challenges for Muslim girls in playing sport identified through this research included a lack of representation of Muslim women and girls in sport, contributing to the idea that they do not belong.
• Men as Allies: Supporting women and girls in community sport, Randle, E., Harris, M, Marshall, S., et al., La Trobe University, GippSport, Victorian Government: Change our Game, (2022). The sporting community is working hard to improve gender equality. Men, because of their power, influence and positions, have an important role as allies in levelling the playing field for women and girls. An ally is any man willing to advocate for, and speak up in support of, women and girls; even though they may personally benefit from existing gender inequality. This research provides practical tools to support men to be allies for gender equality in all aspects of community sport. When men are allies, they will:
  • Challenge gender stereotypes and bias within sporting clubs
  • Be positive role models for other men and boys
  • Help lead change, particularly as men often hold the power, influence and decision making in community sport
  • Be trusted messengers around gender equality, including to other men
  • Share and strengthen advocacy for gender equality, supporting women who do important work within community clubs.
• Keeping Girls in the Game: Factors that Influence Sport Participation, Zarrett, N., Veliz, P.T., and Sabo, D. Women’s Sports Foundation, (2020). This report explores how key characteristics of youth (intrapersonal), their social influences (e.g., interpersonal parent and peer factors), and experiences within the sport setting may vary by gender, age, race/ethnicity, family socioeconomic background, and region. The survey was administered to a nationally representative sample of American boys and girls (N=3,041) between the ages of 7-17 and their parents (N=3,041). Key findings included: Disparities persist; Parents play multiple roles in supporting or hindering their girls' participation in sport; gender stereotypes in sport prevail; importance of role models, "if you can see it, you can be it"; sport can help build positive body image; coaches shape the sport experience; some girls live for competition, and some girls are in it for the fun; cost, transportation, and lack of access keep youth out; maintaining a love of sport (overcoming competing interests) is key to continued participation; and, there is a need to educate parents about the academic benefits of participation.
• Case Study: Measuring the impact of the FA player appearances programme 2015-2016, Women in Sport, (2017). This report looks at the impact of elite sport stars on girls. The Football Association (FA) runs an established ambassador programme, enabling female football players to share their stories and inspire at a local level, with female players visiting schools and community groups for a number of years. Key findings reported are that player appearances provide a really positive experience for girls in school and community settings. Additionally, the four key impacts reported were: re-enthusing and validating girls’ participation in football; actively and meaningfully getting across positive life lessons; inspiring girls to believe they can achieve in football; and driving interest in the women’s elite game.

• ‘You can’t be what you can’t see’: Indigenous Australian sportswomen as powerful role models, Megan Stronach, Michelle O’Shea, Hazel Maxwell, Sport in Society, Volume 26(6), pp.970-984, (2023). It is generally agreed that sporting role models (SRM) can inspire behaviour and attitude. This paper explores the influence of three contemporary Indigenous Australian sportswomen, and in doing so, their role as SRMs for women and girls. By applying and extending Marianne Meier’s (2015) theoretical lens, the actions, voices and influences of the women are considered. Meier recognizes and describes nine functions of SRMs. The voices of the Indigenous female athletes are portrayed through a media analysis including the athletes’ own social media commentary alongside mainstream media over a four-year period from 2017 to 2021. Examining the Indigenous sportswomen’s SRM status enables a layered and deeper understanding of the unique platform provided by sport, which can serve to strengthen their voices and influence. Indigenous Australian sportswomen are constructed in complex and sometimes contradictory ways, at times portrayed as advocates, deviants, sporting ambassadors, and political activists.
• Kicking goals: Exploring the experiences of girls who play Australian Rules football, Paige Kernebone, Amie O’Shea, Alethea Jerebine, et al., Health Promotion Journal of Australia, Volume 33(3), pp.880-890, (July 2022). The results cover four themes: (a) Self-perception—participants presented with positive self-perceptions, (b) Social support—a supportive team and exposure to women playing football, and family support/involvement, were encouraging factors in pathways to playing football, (c) AFLW role models—were positive influences on participants’ experience and self-perceptions and (d) Influence of gender norms/stereotypes—participant self-perceptions displayed conforming and non-conforming features of gender norms/stereotypes. Participants reported exposure to sexist commentary about girls in sport through social media and peers but instead of being discouraged, most used it as motivation or empowerment, while others were dismissive. Findings suggest increased media coverage of AFLW players may be beneficial. Education programs/initiatives which i) involve AFLW role models and ii) encourage family friendly club environments and team bonding spaces are recommended.
• She Needs to See it to be it: The Importance of Same-Gender Athletic Role Models, Midgley C, DeBues-Stafford G, Lockwood P, et al., Sex Roles. Volume 85, pp.142-160, (January 2021). In four studies, we examined the importance of gender-matched athletic role models for women. Although both women and men may benefit most from exposure to high profile athletes in their own sport, women may have fewer motivating role models available to them. When asked to nominate examples of athletes, women were less likely than men to list same-gender examples and athletes from their own sport; even high-performing female athletes were less likely to nominate a same-gender role model than their male peers. Women were nevertheless significantly more motivated by the same-gender and sport-matched examples (Studies 1–2). We demonstrate that same-gender role models are particularly valuable for women because they provide evidence that success is attainable, better represent a possible future self, and counteract negative gender stereotypes. Thus, although they derive special benefit from exposure to female athletic superstars, women are less likely than men to find such role models in their own sport of interest and, consequently, may be at a disadvantage relative to men. The present research illustrates the practical value of role models for women, with important implications for media and educational programming.
• The influence of paternal co-participation on girls’ participation in surfing, mountain biking, and skateboarding in regional Australia, Meredith Nash, Robyn Moore, Leisure Studies, Volume 40(4), pp.454-467, (2021). This qualitative study explored the facilitators of 27 Australian girls’ participation in surfing, mountain biking and skateboarding. This article focuses on the value of paternal co-participation, which was notable in interviews with girls who surf or mountain bike. In particular, we examine the complexity of the role and influence of fathers in girls’ participation. Reflecting their position in action sports, men often shape how girls access these sports and develop their skills. This points to the importance of men and fathers in facilitating girls’ participation in action sports, and possibly broader physical activity behaviours. However, we argue that merely facilitating their daughters’ participation without addressing the experiences of women without male ‘patrons’ in action sports reinscribes male dominance rather than improving gender equity. This study contributes to established work that aims to inform policies and strategies to encourage greater participation of girls and women in action sports.
• “Dad! Let's go have a hit…”: Sources and types of support in female cricket players, John Warmenhoven, Juanita Weissensteiner, Clare MacMahon, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 23(10), pp.991-998, (October 2020). This research showed that: mothers and fathers were primary givers of financial and emotional support (>70% for both parents across the entire cohort); mentors offered meaningful sport specific informational and technical (or coaching related) support; and siblings and peers played integral roles, acting as fellow participants for practice and play. Access to coaching also emerged as a dominant point of difference between community and elite cricket players consistently across all support providers. The father emerged as a dominant provider of support for elite players across five different dimensions of support.
• Where are the Moms? Strategies to Recruit Female Youth-Sport Coaches. Keidrich K. Strategies, Volume 33(5), pp.12-17, (Sep/Oct 2020). There are numerous benefits to sport participation among children and adolescents and coaches play a significant role in getting youth, especially girls, involved in sports and continuing participation in sports. Despite the advances of girls and women in sport participation since Title IX, the majority of youth sport coaches are men. Female coaches can be important role models for all youth in sport. The purpose of this article is to describe the benefits of having female coaches and potential strategies to encourage more women to coach.
• Formative research to develop a school-based, community-linked physical activity role model programme for girls: CHoosing Active Role Models to INspire Girls (CHARMING), Kelly Morgan, Jordan Van Godwin, Kirsty Darwent, Alison Fildes, BMC Public Health, Volume 19, Article #437, (April 2019). The purpose of the current research was to gather views from preadolescent girls, parents, teachers and stakeholders in order to co-produce a multi-component school-based, community linked PA intervention programme. Girls reported that fun taster sessions delivered by role models would encourage them to participate in a school-based role model programme, with tailored taster sessions each week to enhance continued PA participation.
• The inspirational effect of sporting achievements and potential role models in football: a gender-specific analysis, Wicker, P., Frick, B. Managing Sport and Leisure, Volume 21(5), pp.265-282, (December 2016). This study examines the trickle-down effect of potential role models and sporting achievements, respectively. Specifically, it examined the inspirational effect of same-sex and opposite-sex role models on male and female participation in German amateur football. Longitudinal data on German football club memberships and amateur teams were collected for 21 regional football associations over a 15-year-period. The results found that sporting success does not automatically lead to the development of positive role models and inspirational effects.
• Elite footballers as role models: promoting young women’s football participation. Dunn, C. Soccer and Society, Volume 17(6), pp.843-856, (2016). Reports the experiences and thoughts of elite female footballers in Great Britain in relation to role models. In particular, it discusses their views on how to encourage young women’s football participation from elite, down to grass-roots levels.
• Role models of Australian female adolescents: A longitudinal study to inform programmes designed to increase physical activity and sport participation. Young, J., Symons, C., Pain, M., et. al., European Physical Education Review, Volume 21(4), pp.451-466, (2015). This study examined role models of adolescent girls and their influence on physical activity by surveying 732 girls in Years 7 and 11 from metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions of Victoria, Australia. Survey questions included whether they had a role model and if they did, the gender, age, type and sporting background of that individual. The survey found the majority of participants nominated a family member, peer or celebrity sportsperson as their role model who was female, played sport and was less than 50 years of age. Non-metropolitan-based adolescent girls and year 11 adolescent girls were more likely to select a role model who they knew played sport than metropolitan-based adolescent girls and Year 7 girls respectively. This study highlighted that family members, peers and sportspeople should be included as role models in programmes designed to increase physical activity.
• The value of female sporting role models. Meiera, M. Sport in Society, Volume 18(8), pp.968-982, (2015). This article examines the evidence in relation to the value and functions of female sporting role models. Areas discussed include: participation, leadership, advocacy, gender stereotypes, inspiration, ethics, safeguarding and prevention, media and business and giving back to sport. The author argues that rather than just increasing female SRMs in numbers, attention should be dedicated to the selection variety that encompasses the functions of role models.

• How I Roll featuring Casey Donovan, Wheelchair Sports NSW/ACT, YouTube, (14 September 2020). Official Video for HOW I ROLL - the anthem for girls and women in wheelchair sport.
• Play. Sport. Australia. Sporting Heroes, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (2 November 2016). Watch these kids talk about their greatest sporting heroes. Their answers may surprise you.
• Stick with it: Laura Geitz, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (2 May 2016). Sport plays an important role in the lives of teens. Here Laura Geitz talks about what sport meant to her as she went through school.

• Making #HERstory: Girls who play on boys’ teams and supporting the lone girl in sport, Jennifer Coletti, SIRC blog, (20 October 2021). For my master’s thesis, I explored the experiences of lone girls in team sports. I interviewed 14 individuals who had participated in sport as a lone girl and asked them about their experiences. In this blog, I share my findings and propose ways that coaches and organizations can enhance the sport environment for lone girls. Regardless of their motives for competing, lone girls expressed unique challenges to their sport participation. These challenges spanned physical and social spaces, leaving many girls to feel both left out and singled out because of their gender. Lone girls also described feeling pressure to perform, despite facing limited opportunities for advancement in sport.
• Gender equality in sport needs to start at the clubhouse, Victoria University, (18 November 2020). Increasing participation alone isn't enough to shift traditional gender relations in sports that have traditionally privileged men, a new study led by Victoria University and Monash University shows. The study found women and girls felt devalued within sports clubs through ongoing micro-practices including difficulties gaining access to quality facilities, poorer training times, less recognition on club’s social media, and lower recognition of their achievements and successes.
• Why do more girls quit sports than boys? David Benay, Active for Life, (28 August 2020). By their late teens, one in 3 girls who used to play sports has quit, compared to just one in 10 boys. This gender gap persists past the teen years and continues into adulthood.
• Five ways to make gyms and swimming pools more accessible to women, Sport England, (24 August 2020). This Girl Can campaign has published the results of a new survey which showed that, out of those women who had returned to gyms and pools, as many as 87% felt safe with the anti-coronavirus (Covid-19) measures in place. To help encourage more women to go back, especially important given how gym settings support women to be active, the This Girl Can community has set out a list of ideas that would further help to combat concerns around feeling intimidated or judged (51%) or feeling uncomfortable in their swimwear (73%). The top five ideas were:
  • A discreet offer from staff to help with equipment (48%)
  • A code of conduct in the weights room like time limits and re-racking heavy weights after use (36%)
  • Hooks by the pool to hang towels to restrict time walking in swimming costume (44%)
  • Women’s only areas/dedicated swim time for women (36%)
  • Fewer full-length mirrors (21%).
• #FITSPO a flop at inspiring women to get active: New This Girl Can campaign focuses on the feeling not the scales, VicHealth , (1 March 2020). While it might be popular on Instagram, new research from health promotion foundation VicHealth has found most Victorian women are turned off exercise by images of taut and toned #FITSPO influencers. Key findings from a survey of over 1000 Victorian women found that around two-thirds of women (66%) aren’t motivated by #FITSPO images of women on Instagram. Over three-quarters of women find seeing women of all different body shapes getting active motivating. A third of women feel bad or inadequate about their own bodies and fitness when they see #FITSPO images on Instagram. Almost 80% of women want to see more women with a range of body shapes included in physical activity advertising.
• Time to tackle the physical activity gender gap, The Lancet Public Health editorial, (22 July 2019). The physical activity gap between boys and girls begins early. Children's exposure to narrow gender norms around boys versus girls activities and a failure to adapt the types of sports offered can instil this lack of enjoyment and body confidence, and in turn, shape attitudes to physical activity into adulthood. Indeed, many women are put off by certain physical activities over concerns about stereotypes, because of insecurities around body image, or feeling constrained by cultural acceptability. Women and girls' sport generally receives less investment at the grassroots level—including access to equipment, transport, and coaching and to safe and welcoming facilities. Women still often play the lead role in childcare and managing households—for many, in addition to paid work—which means they generally have less leisure time.
• Busy mums encouraged to prioritise their own activity levels, Sport England, (17 June 2019). A survey conducted by Opinium showed that 61% of mums would feel guilty about taking time to exercise. It also showed that a lack of time is keeping busy mums from exercising, with 30% reporting to have less than an hour free to themselves per day. However, almost 70% of mothers think it is important for their children to see them exercising. Outside of work, mothers said they were most likely to prioritise tasks revolving around family, such as spending time with them, housework and cooking, but only 17% of the 1,006 respondents prioritised their own exercise.
• Unleashing the Value of Women’s Sport Fact sheet, NSW Office of Sport, (2017). Growing sport for girls makes good business sense. It also helps address the gender imbalance in sport participation and contributes to improving health, social and equality issues.

• Sportswomen’s Apparel Around the World: uniformly discussed, Linda K Fuller (ed.), Springer, (2021). This volume presents a collection of essays that explore the relationship between sporting clothing and gender. Drawing on uniform and sports apparel as a means of exploring the socio-sexual politics of the contemporary world, the contributions analyse the historical, political-economic, socio-cultural and sport-specific dimensions of gendered clothing in sport.
• Developing Sport for Women and Girls, Emma Sherry, Katie Rowe, Routledge, (2020). Provides critical analysis of contemporary sport development, from high performance pathways to engaging diverse communities to the use of sport to empower women and girls. Each chapter explores various contexts of sport development and sport for development theory with a specific focus on women and girls. It covers key topics such as health, education, sexual orientation and participation across the life course, and features international case studies in every chapter. [available from the Clearinghouse for Sport, GV709.D47 2020]

• The Commonwealth Guide to Advancing Development through Sport, Kay T and Dudfield O, Commonwealth Secretariat in collaboration with the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport, (2013). Chapter 7 ‘Advancing Gender Equality through Sport’ identifies policy priorities for governments and states that gender equality underpins major development goals, including ensuring education for all, improving child and maternal health and combating disease. There is a well-established tradition of using sport to address issues of empowerment for girls and women, and sport can act as a powerful mechanism to challenge social attitudes that legitimise unequal female treatment.

• The case for change, Sport New Zealand, (2018). This provides an overview of research illustrating the 'case for change' for women and girls in sport. The focus areas are: leadership; participation; and value and visibility. Highlights NZ research relating to barriers to participation are significantly higher for females compared to males. Young women and girls want: to have fun and socialise; to feel safe to participate; not to feel judged; to keep fit and maintain my weight; to feel confident doing what they’re doing; activities to fit around their other commitments.

• The volunteer capacity of community sports clubs to support women and girls in sport, Change Our Game, (2023). The aim of this research project was to investigate community sports clubs’ volunteer capacity - including management, retention and recruitment - to engage women and girls in participating and volunteering in community sport. The insights from this research can help sports organisations and local clubs identify areas of improvement in growing volunteer capacity to support women and girls’ participation in community-level sport. Some key findings include:
  • Supportive behaviours from men at clubs (including players) are important in enabling women to play sport, such as men taking on roles on game day (e.g. scoring or running the canteen).
  • There are varied attitudes of club volunteers towards supporting opportunities for women and girls to play sport.
  • Parents play an important role in supporting girls to play sport, in particular dads with daughters, who seemed enthused to fill volunteer roles for girls’ teams, to enable opportunities for girls
  • Some clubs display deep-rooted gender stereotypes, where boys’ player pathways are perceived to be more important than girls’ pathways.
  • Inequities in resourcing teams, for example clubs’ focus on the category with the highest number of teams (i.e. having more men’s/boys teams).
  • To support women and girls community sports clubs should consider actions such as: Addressing inequalities in team resourcing, developing specific strategies to increase women in volunteer roles, have policies supporting women in leadership roles in the club, support younger women to build confidence and capability, create a welcoming and inclusive club culture.
• State of Play Survey 2022-23, Change our Game, Victorian Government, (June 2023). Between October and November 2022, more than 670 Victorians answered questions on a range of topics relating to gender equality in sport, including values and behaviour in community sport, elite sport, sports media and coverage, leadership opportunities and perceptions, and experiences working and volunteering in sport. The State of Play Survey revealed that overall, while there are some positive attitudes towards women and girls in sport and their right to equal opportunities and access, change is still required in terms of underlying attitudes and behaviours. Consistently throughout the survey, men were less likely than women to perceive gender inequality in various aspects of sport. Some of the key insights were:
  • Only 27% believe women are treated fairly and not disadvantaged in any sport.
  • More than 50% of people who play community sport have experienced or seen gender imbalance (56%) sexist language and jokes (55%).
  • Women working or volunteering in sport were 13% less likely than men to feel comfortable voicing their opinion, and 8% less likely to feel that their opinions were valued.
  • 28% of women have considered leaving their club due to inequitable treatment.
  • Women are 2.5x more likely to report feeling unwelcome at their sporting club compared to men.
• Sport, stereotypes and stolen dreams: Why girls still feel they don’t belong in sport, Women in Sport, (March 2023). Report found that girls are starting out surrounded by expectations that will limit their enjoyment of and participation in sport and physical activity. Sport can give girls and women resilience, courage and self-belief. We also know that gender stereotypes hold girls and women back from sport, and in life. In this study we explored where gender stereotyping begins so we can challenge and inspire to create lasting change for women and girls in sport and society.
• Reframing Sport for Teenage Girls: Tackling Teenage Disengagement, Women in Sport, (March 2022). Too many girls are disengaging from sport and exercise in their teens. This is huge compared to boys – a significant missed opportunity. An underlying narrative prevails; that girls are not as competitive; that sport is not important for girls; that they will never be as good at it compared to boys; that sport can be at odds with femininity. Add to that the harassment and unwanted attention teenage girls are subject to when exercising and quite simply, taking part becomes a burden, instead of bringing freedom and joy. Self-belief, capability and body image concerns can be significant issues for all girls. Our report highlights that complex barriers and deep-rooted negative attitudes are affecting enjoyment:
• Feel judged (61%)
• Lack self belief (50%)
• Pressures of schoolwork (41%)
• Don’t feel safe exercising outside (38%)
• Victorian participation in organised sports, VicHealth, Federation University, Victoria University, Sport and Recreation Spartial , (February 2022). The report illustrates participation across age, sex and location in 2020 and compares this with participation in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 in Victorian club-based sport. In it's sixth year, the report combines data from Victorian State Sporting Associations (SSAs) for 10 major sports: Australian football, basketball, cricket, football (soccer), gymnastics, hockey, netball, sailing, swimming and tennis.
  • During COVID-19 restrictions women were more impacted than males, by having competing demands of working from home, home schooling children, caring for young children and other family members as well as other home duties and commitments. Boys have historically been provided greater opportunities than girls to play sport. Further, women are likely to prioritise their children’s participation in sport over their own. This is because many mothers feel guilty about themselves returning to play sport as they juggle with the expectations of motherhood. These findings confirm the need for continued bespoke strategies enabling women and girls to participate in sport with a specific focus on retention of participants.
• In the Game: Enabling Muslim girls to play sport and be active, Boz, T, Halilovich, H, La Trobe University, GippSport, Victorian Government: Change our Game, (2022). The experiences of Muslim girls and women participating in sport and physical activity are diverse, and can be influenced by a range of factors, including social, cultural, religious and economic factors. This summary outlines key findings from research that examined barriers to participation in sport and physical activity by Muslim girls, and highlights opportunities and solutions to overcoming these barriers. Some of the key barriers and challenges for Muslim girls in playing sport identified through this research include:
  • Experiences of social exclusion and feeling like they don't belong.
  • Lack of representation of Muslim women and girls in sport, contributes to the idea that they do not belong.
  • Racism and discrimination experienced by some.
  • The hijab worn by women and girls makes them visible targets for overt and covert forms of racism and micro-aggression.
  • The dominant presence of alcohol in the sports field and at the sporting club impacted some, deciding to avoid those environments, including social activities.
  • Some parents place a priority on academic studies for their daughters.
  • Lack of options or flexibility in sporting uniforms, particularly in relation to girls wearing the hijab.
  • Lack of girls' sport teams in the local area.
  • Parental attitudes were barriers to some girls’ participation in sport.
  • Cost of membership, uniforms, equipment and transport.
• Men as Allies: Supporting women and girls in community sport, Randle, E., Harris, M, Marshall, S., et al., La Trobe University, GippSport, Victorian Government: Change our Game, (2022). The sporting community is working hard to improve gender equality. Men, because of their power, influence and positions, have an important role as allies in levelling the playing field for women and girls. An ally is any man willing to advocate for, and speak up in support of, women and girls; even though they may personally benefit from existing gender inequality. This research provides practical tools to support men to be allies for gender equality in all aspects of community sport. When men are allies, they will:
  • Challenge gender stereotypes and bias within sporting clubs
  • Be positive role models for other men and boys
  • Help lead change, particularly as men often hold the power, influence and decision making in community sport
  • Be trusted messengers around gender equality, including to other men
  • Share and strengthen advocacy for gender equality, supporting women who do important work within community clubs.
• Inspiring Women to be Active During Midlife and Menopause, Women in Sport, (May 2021). Within this new research, we examined every aspect of women’s lives over a five-month period to fully understand their experiences of menopause and physical activity and uncover the barriers that women experience to being active throughout midlife and menopause. We focused specifically on women in lower socioeconomic groups because we know they face additional barriers and are less likely to be active, and spoke exclusively to inactive women who had either lapsed from being active previously or had never enjoyed being active. Five principles to inspire women to be active in midlife:
  • Endless Possibilities – Expand perceptions and opportunities for being active.
  • Judgement-Free Zone – Welcoming and supportive environment.
  • Support Network – Offer built-in social support.
  • Expand the Image of What Sporty Means – Inspiring, relatable role models.
  • Make It Relevant – Reference specific, relevant benefits.
• Gender Diversity in Sport and its impact on governance, infrastructure, practice and participation in Scotland, Jane Dennehy, Observatory for Sport n Scotland, (June 2020). Practices prevail in society and more specfically in sport which are opaque and continue to reproduce gender inequalities. This paper seeks to explore gender as a topic to advocate that greater knowledge and understanding is required to ensure the rhetoric of equality and diversity is challenged to support robust and sustainable action on gender in Scottish sport from community to national sport.
• Keeping Girls in the Game: Factors that Influence Sport Participation, Zarrett, N., Veliz, P.T., and Sabo, D. Women’s Sports Foundation, (2020). This report explores how key characteristics of youth (intrapersonal), their social influences (e.g., interpersonal parent and peer factors), and experiences within the sport setting may vary by gender, age, race/ethnicity, family socioeconomic background, and region. The survey was administered to a nationally representative sample of American boys and girls (N=3,041) between the ages of 7-17 and their parents (N=3,041) to inquire about child‑related, sport-related, and systemic factors expected to influence youth access, experiences, and motivations for initial participation (entrance) and sustained/continued participation in sport. Key findings included: Disparities persist; Parents play multiple roles in supporting or hindering their girls' participation in sport; gender stereotypes in sport prevail; importance of role models, "if you can see it, you can be it"; sport can help build positive body image; coaches shape the sport experience; some girls live for competition, and some girls are in it for the fun; cost, transportation, and lack of access keep youth out; maintianing a love of sport (overcoming competing interests) is key to continued participation; and, there is a need to educate parents about the academic benefits of participation.
• She Belongs: Building Social Connection for Lasting Participation in Sport, Vanessa Wallace, Canadian Women and Sport, (2020). When a girl chooses to play sports, what she will gain goes far beyond kicking a ball, learning a new stroke, or crossing a finish line. Through positive sport experiences, girls are more likely to reap the benefits of sport participation and grow into confident and motivated leaders. Creating a positive social environment that intentionally fosters a sense of belonging is integral to the retention of girls in sport and physical activity. For many boys, good performance creates a stronger sense of social belonging. In contrast, for many girls, feeling a strong sense of social belonging will enhance their performance. This resource is designed for coaches who are ready to intentionally support equitable sport. She Belongs offers practical recommendations to create social connection and better engage girls in the Learn to Train and Train to Train stages of the Long-Term Development in Sport and Physical Activity Framework (LTD).
• Reframing Sport for Teenage Girls: Building strong foundations for their futures, Women in Sport , (Apirl 2019). Funded by Sport England, this research provides evidence supporting the need to reframe sport and physical activity as something that girls value and perceive to enhance their lives. It includes 8 Principles of Success to support organisations to bridge the ‘relevance gap’ in sport for girls and ensure it has a more meaningful place in their lives. A toolkit to help organisations implement the principles is also available.
• Active Lives Children and Young People Survey: attitudes towards sport and physical activity academic year 2017/18, Sport England , (March 2019). More than 130,000 children and young people were surveyed in the academic year 2017-18, with participation figures published in December. This new analysis has identified five key findings that give us further insight into the attitudes of children and young people towards sport and physical activity. One of the key findings of the report is that enjoyment is the biggest driver of activity levels. Despite the majority of children (68%) understanding that sport and activity is good for them, understanding had the least impact on activity levels. However, girls are less likely to say they enjoy or feel confident about doing sport and physical activity (58% of boys enjoy it, compared to 43% of girls and 47% of boys feel confident, compared to 31% of girls). Among children aged 5 to 7 years, boys are more likely to love playing sport, while girls are more likely to love being active.
• Coaching through a Gender Lens: Maximizing Girls’ Play and Potential, Zarrett, N., Cooky, C., Veliz, P.T., Women’s Sports Foundation, (2018). The report indicates a number of positive ways parents, coaches, and programs are meeting the needs of girl athletes. More can be done to help address the challenges of recruiting and retaining girls in sport.
• Puberty & Sport: An Invisible Stage, Women in Sport, (2018). Puberty is a confusing time of significant physical, emotional and social change for girls, which they feel unprepared to deal with due to a lack of education.
  During this transition to adulthood, girls can form negative attitudes towards sport due to parents being less engaged, increased studying and pressure to perform well at school, a desire for new, more mature experiences and wanting to be accepted and acceptable to peers.
• Women and Girls in Sport, Active Recreation and Physical activity - A Participation Review, Reece, LJ., Foley, BC., McInerney, C., et.al., SPRINTER Group, University of Sydney, (2017). The purpose of this report is to provide strategic guidance for increasing participation in women and girls across the life course, in sport, active recreation and physical activity. This encapsulates all-encompassing movement that is delivered through the sport and active recreation sector. Critically though, no single domain, policy or program will, in isolation, deliver sufficiently meaningful increases in participation at the population level; a comprehensive, multifaceted and multisector approach is necessary.
• Women in Sport: Fuelling a Lifetime of Participation, Canadian Women and Sport, Dairy Farmers of Canada, (2016). An extensive and important resources for anyone looking to understand the status of women and girls in the Canadian sport system. Key challenges highlighted in the report include: a sharper decline in girls’ participation rates during adolescence than boys’; high costs to participate and few perceived financial opportunities for a career as a female athlete; a lack of prominent role models and quality media coverage; and a need for coaches who can support positive sport experiences for girls. With recommendations for system, community and individual level change, there’s a part for everyone to play in improving the Canadian sport landscape for women and girls.
• Go where women are: Insight on engaging women and girls in sport and exercise, Sport England, (June 2015). This review explores our current understanding of what women want from sport and exercise programs; their relevant motivations, barriers, and triggers that prompt them into being more active. This review also identifies what this means for sports and exercise activities and initiatives, so that program deliverers can adjust to the needs of women and girls. Seven key principles for program providers are discussed: (1) change the offer to suit the women being targeted, listen to marketing and customer experiences of women; (2) don’t just talk about sport, consider how to present and explain the intended experience; (3) differentiate sport from other interests by promoting (not preaching) the benefits; (4) make sport the ‘norm’ for women of all ages, sizes, and cultural backgrounds by celebrating it; (5) use positivity and encouragement to drive action (rather than fear of the consequences of a sedentary lifestyle); (6) make it easy for women to act, address both practical and emotional barriers to participation; and (7) remember that people make or break the experience, ensure participants are properly supported along the way.
• Retaining the membership of women in sport, Confederation of Australian Sport, report to the Government of Australia, Office for Sport, Department of Health, (December 2013). The multi-dimensional and highly demanding lifestyles of women in Australian society present many challenges and obstacles to the way women engage in sport during their adult life stages. This study provided insights from 1,121 Australian women 'masters sport' competitors on their motivations, challenges, needs and issues faced in their decision to continue playing sport. The study acquired data from female participants at four Australian Masters Games from 2007 to 2013. Online survey methods were used to collect data and 21 in-depth, face-to-face interviews with female competitors were conducted during the 14^th Australian Masters Games held in Geelong in October 2013. A number of practical issues that would facilitate greater women’s participation in sport were identified in the survey:
  • provision of child care facilities
  • increasing affordability – reducing costs of participation in sporting competition and events
  • scheduling of sporting competitions – insights were provided about the structure and timing of sporting competition
  • access and availability of local sporting facilities
  • access and availability of sports officials
  • promotion of local sporting opportunities – improved advertising and promotion.
• Actively engaging women and girls: Addressing the psycho-social factors, Johnstone L and Millar S, Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity, (2012). Psycho-social factors relate to: autonomy and control; involvement and empowerment; social capital and social cohesion; social support and support networks; social diversity and tolerance; vulnerability and security; and role conflicts and imbalance. These psycho-social factors can either contribute to, or discourage, girls and women from sport and physical activity participation, depending upon the actions taken by parents, peers, coaches, educators, officials, and leaders. Factors identified in this report as enabling participation include:
  • perceived and demonstrated value of the activity
  • positive perception of one’s own skills and ability
  • progress in the successful mastery and refinement of skill;
  • high self-esteem and positive perceptions of physical competence
  • positive self-perception of physical appearance
  • experiences that are enjoyable and satisfying
  • acceptance of one’s actual or perceived sex, gender identity and/or gender expression
  • acceptance of one’s socio-economic status, race, culture, disability
  • feelings of cohesion, belongingness, emotional support from peers and others
  • effective conflict resolution
  • a sense of security.
• Muslim Women in Sport, Women’s Sport and Fitness Foundation and Sporting Equals, (2010). This report identifies perceived or real barriers and suggests how sporting organisations can become more inclusive for Muslim women. In general, Islam promotes good health and fitness and encourages both men and women to engage in physical activity to maintain healthy lifestyles. However, there are aspects of the religion which affect how sports can be practised by women. For example, their faith does not allow them to engage in mixed gender sports and the environment and dress code also requires consideration. Due to religious misinterpretations or simply a lack of awareness, many Muslim women face barriers to sports participation. For many, apprehension about taking part stems from a fear of discrimination or of facing negative attitudes from service providers in relation to their religious and cultural needs.

• Exploring Images of the Future of Women Cyclists Using the Futures Triangle, Nur Anisah Abdullah, Azra Naimi, Journal of Futures Studies, Volume 27(3), pp.25-42, (2023). The objective of this study is to broaden the understanding of women’s cycling experiences, looking at motivation, challenges, and influences, and exploring and documenting the images of the future of a group of women cyclists with a view to using their vision to inform the design of a more inclusive space for cycling enthusiasts. Studies suggest that women cycle less because of the perception of physical risk and socio-cultural concerns and if they do cycle it is more for recreation than as a commute to work or place of study. The traditional sexual division of labour inhibits women’s participation in cycling as a means of transport. The wider gender inequalities in the division of time between women and men in relation to different roles assigned to them by society, such as spending time caring for and educating family members, and cooking and housework, duties that are expected to be filled by women, may prevent them from bicycle use. In addition, they more often travel with young children, which heightens the threat to safety posed by travel by bicycle.
• Are gender-stereotyped attitudes and beliefs in fathers and daughters associated with girls’ perceived motor competence? India Dechrai, Emiliano Mazzoli, Lisa Hanna, et al., Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, (6 June 2022). This study aimed to examine the association between father and daughter gender-stereotyped attitudes/beliefs and girls’ PMC. Girls with more gender-stereotyped attitudes have lower motor skill perceptions, which may impact negatively on physical activity and sport participation. Future interventions aimed at reducing sociocultural gender stereotypes in children may improve girls’ motor skill perception and positively impact physical activity.
• Teens’ dreams of becoming professional athletes: the gender gap in youths’ sports ambitions, Ingunn Marie Eriksen, Sport in Society, Volume 25(10), pp.1909-1923, (2022). In comparatively gender equal Norway, most boys and girls participate in sports at about equal rates. This apparent gender equality is investigated further: do young teens also profess equal ambitions of becoming professional athletes? Drawing on 81 interviews with 12- and 13-year-olds, the study suggest that the boys and girls make similar investments in sports, but there are clear gender differences in the ways they describe their future ambitions. The majority of the boys talk about wanting to become professional athletes and going ‘all in’, but very few of the girls do – the ambitious girls rather talk about skills development. The paper argues that cultural narratives thus shape young people’s self-understanding and ambitions, both boys and girls may suffer consequences of this: in a sports-internal logic, the girls may be given limited practical possibilities, resources and support – but boys may risk regret, disappointment and wasting time and resources.
• Engaging Minority Girls in Organized Youth Sport in Norway: A Case Study of a Project That Worked, Siv Gjesdal, Susanna Hedenborg, Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 3, (December 2021). Sport participation has increasingly been recognized as a potentially important context for fostering social inclusion for minority youths. Yet across Europe, minority girls are participating in sport to a lesser degree than their majority counterparts. This study explored the reasons why a particular project aimed at recruiting minority girls to organized team sport succeeded in doing just that. A case study design was adopted to provide an in-depth analysis of how this project satisfied the basic psychological needs of minority girls. Nine girls, four parents, two coaches, and two project team members were interviewed about the project and sport participation in general. Two main themes were identified, a sense of being facilitated and inclusion in the sport environment. The former emphasized the importance of aligning the participation with the girls' cultural norms and values, particularly in the beginning. It also included practical issues such as finances, reminding us that participation in sport is not just a motivational issue. The latter focused on the importance of including the girls in the general sports program, regardless of their athletic abilities at the onset of their participation and creating a mastery environment. Moreover, by removing remediable differences between the minority and majority girls, such as having the right equipment, seemed important to fostering a sense of belonging in the sports club. Additionally, establishing meaningful relationships with coaches and majority counterparts seemed to be a major motivating factor.
• Five-Year Changes in Community-Level Sport Participation, and the Role of Gender Strategies, Rochelle Eime, Melanie Charity, Jack Harvey, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 3, (October 2021). The number of women and girls playing sport is gradually increasing for the better. An important observation from our findings is that women and girls in particular are starting to play male-dominated sports. This suggests that barriers to their previous participation may largely have been related to hegemonic masculine club cultures within these sports—that these sports “weren't for girls to play.” Such attitudes (largely by men) and perceptions (by all genders) are starting to change and these changes are in line with significant sport policy strategies and investments focused on increasing participation for women and girls, including offering a wider range of participation opportunities and options, building female friendly infrastructure, and facilitating female sport leadership. Equal participation opportunities and equity in regard to leading in and benefiting from sport require multifaceted developments from both top-down and bottom-up approaches. Recommendations include ongoing strategic developments and investment, increased media attention for and exposure of female sport, social and cultural change in and around club environments, inclusive and welcoming clubs, leadership opportunities, government and community support. Furthermore, it is and important at all levels, that there is a presence and a voice for women and girls in sport.
• Gender Relations, Gender Equity, and Community Sports Spaces, Ruth Jeanes, Ramòn Spaaij, Karen Farquharson, et al., Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 45(6), pp.545-567, (2021). This study employs a spatial analysis to critically examine gender relations within an Australian football and netball community sports club that has sought to address gender inequity and promote the participation of women across the club. Notable changes included increased female representation in the club’s decision-making structures, growing numbers of female members, and the establishment of a women’s and girls’ football section. The findings reinforce that although a greater number of women and girls are participating in community sport, this alone is not significantly reshaping gender relations. Policies seeking to promote gender equity in sport need to enforce changes in club environments in addition to focusing on increasing women’s participation.
• “Girls Aren’t Meant to Exercise”: Perceived Influences on Physical Activity among Adolescent Girls—The HERizon Project, Emma Cowley, Paula Watson, Lawrence Foweather, et al., Children, Volume 8(1), (2021). Adolescent girls are less active than boys, with approximately 10% of girls in Ireland and the United Kingdom meeting the minimum recommended daily physical activity (PA) guidelines. This study investigated factors perceived to influence PA among adolescent girls from low socioeconomic areas in order to inform the design of a future intervention (The HERizon Project). A total of 48 adolescent girls (13–18 years) from low socioeconomic areas of the United Kingdom and Ireland participated in focus groups (n = 8), to explore perspectives of physical activity and the influence of gender within this. Most girls enjoyed PA and were aware of its benefits. They identified both barriers and facilitators to PA at intrapersonal (fear of judgement and changing priorities WITH age), interpersonal (changing social pressures and support from others) and organizational (delivery of PE) levels. Gender inequality was a multilevel factor, crossing all socioecological levels. Although many adolescent girls enjoy PA, their experiences appear to be limited by a fear of judgement and an overarching sense of gender inequality. Future interventions, such as the HERizon Project, should address influences at intrapersonal, interpersonal and organizational levels to promote positive PA experiences for adolescent girls.
• Girls Do Not Sweat: the Development of Gender Stereotypes in Physical Education in Primary School, Carolina Cárcamo, Amparo Moreno, Cristina del Barrio, Human Arenas, Volume 4, pp.196-217, (2021). Stereotypes about gender-appropriate behaviour play a key role in doing physical-sports activity. Based on the expectancy-value model, this study describes the gender beliefs of boys/girls regarding physical education. A total of 30 children (half-boys, half-girls) that were 4th- and 5th-year pupils (8–10 years) at two Colombian schools were interviewed using a semi-structured script focusing on open-ended questions. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed. The results suggest gender differences in boys/girls already in the 4th year with respect to their abilities and the value they put on physical education based on a wide range of gender stereotypes. Specifically, boys/girls see football as a men’s sport, while skating, handball and volleyball are perceived as women’s sports. Furthermore, boys/girls have a dominant gender narrative that makes femininity subordinate to masculinity, thereby encouraging binary gender beliefs and practices. These stereotypes are reflected in their choice of activities and in how they use the school facilities, educing in this way the opportunities of both boys/girls as far as physical-sports activity are concerned. We discuss the findings emphasizing their relation to education and sociocultural influences. The conclusions suggest the need to make boys and girls more aware about gender equality, make changes to the activities and to how the physical spaces are used and provide equal teaching and learning experiences to reduce a divide still present in physical-sports education.
• More opportunities, same challenges: adolescent girls in sports that are traditionally constructed as masculine, Nadia Bevan, Claire Drummond, Liz Abery, et al., Sport, Education and Society, Volume 26(6), pp.592-605, (2021). The present study investigated adolescent girls’ experiences (N = 34, aged 13–17 years) in three sports that are traditionally constructed as masculine in Australia: football, cricket and Australian rules football. Through a sociological gendered lens, results from narrative inquiry indicated that adolescent girls are required to navigate gender constructs and sexuality stereotypes. Numerous inequities between girls and boys exist and are challenging to negotiate. The present findings suggest that social connectedness, mentors and same-sex role models assist girls to navigate their sport involvement. These findings provide a sound basis for future research to explore practical solutions to keep girls engaged in such sports.
• The #MomsGotGame Campaign: What the Research Says About Mom’s Participation in Physical Activity and Sport, Veronica Allan, SIRC, (9 September 2020). The purpose of this document is to provide a summary of the evidence that underpinned the development of the #MomsGotGame campaign. To this end, a literature review focused on mother’s participation in physical activity in sport was conducted. The benefits of physical activity and sport participation cannot be understated. And while moms recognize the importance of physical activity for their health and wellbeing, they often prioritize the needs of their children, household, or employer above their own. Despite the fact that many moms want to participate in physical activity and sport, additional parenting duties and limited access to fitness facilities and organized activities (e.g., exercise classes, sports leagues) are creating additional challenges to being active. As such, resources and support provided through #MomsGotGame will consider the unique challenges and circumstances for mothers during the COVID-19 pandemic. To address or overcome these barriers, messages and programs should focus on increasing positive attitudes about mom’s participation in physical activity and sport (e.g., self-compassion, encouragement from others) and reframing beliefs about mom’s social roles (e.g., shared household and childcare duties). The delivery of programs and messages using digital technologies (e.g., mobile apps) represents another promising avenue for promotion.
• Sociodemographic Determinants of Physical Activity and Sport Participation among Women in the United States, Jennifer Pharr, Nancy Lough, Angela Terencio, Sports, Volume 8(7), (July 2020). Little is known about the sociodemographic determinants of physical activity among women, especially among the different subcategories of physical activity (sport, conditioning exercise, recreation, and household tasks). The purpose of this study was to examine the sociodemographic determinants among subcategories of physically active women in the United States by analyzing Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data. There were significant differences in all sociodemographic variables among the four subcategories of physical activity. Women who participated in sport were more likely to be in the younger age groups; however, physical activity declined among all subcategories beyond the age of 64. Women who participated in sports were more diverse, likely to be employed, and college graduates compared to the other subcategories. Women who participated in recreational or household tasks were more likely to meet the criteria to be categorized as highly active; however, they exercised at a lower intensity. The sociodemographic characteristics of physical activity and sport participation can be used to create promotional strategies to increase physical activity and improve fitness and health among women who tend towards participation, and also to change programs to accommodate women from other sociodemographic groups.
• Fitness- and appearance-related self-conscious emotions and sport experiences: A prospective longitudinal investigation among adolescent girls, Eva Pila, Catherine Sabiston, Diane Mack, et al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 47, (March 2020). The objectives of this longitudinal study were to describe changes in fitness-related and appearance-related self-conscious emotions (i.e., guilt, shame, authentic pride, hubristic pride) and sport experiences (i.e., sport commitment, enjoyment, anxiety) over time, and examine whether between- and within-person differences in these emotions predict sport experiences during adolescence. Insights from the research suggest that: fitness-related shame and guilt increased; and pride, sport commitment and enjoyment decreased over 3 years. Girls with higher levels of fitness-related shame and guilt and lower levels of pride reported worsened sport experiences. Girls reported poor sport experiences at times when all emotions were worse than their own average. Fitness-related self-conscious emotions contribute to sport experiences above and beyond appearance emotions.
• Building cultural diversity in sport: a critical dialogue with Muslim women and sports facilitators, Nida Ahmad, Holly Thorpe, Justin Richards, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(4), pp.637-653, (2020). This paper draws upon focus groups with 38 Muslim women and 14 sports facilitators to explore the opportunities and constraints for Muslim women’s participation in sport and active recreation in Aotearoa New Zealand. The paper highlights the (mis)understandings between Muslim women and sports organisations as to the needs, barriers and strategies for building sport as more culturally inclusive. Bringing the voices of Muslim women and facilitators together into critical dialogue, we reveal important inconsistencies between perceived barriers. We also highlight the important work some individuals are doing to develop inclusive spaces for ethnic minorities. Ultimately, this research demonstrates the importance of cultural awareness, and the need for multicultural training initiatives across sports organisations to improve practice and policy.
• Development and Validation of a Tool for Assessing Barriers to Participation in Team Sports for Women with Physical-Mobility Disabilities, Forough Bakhtiary, Mahvash Noorbakhsh, Parivash Noorbakhsh, et.al., Annals of Applied Sport Science, Volume 9(s1), (2020). One of the most important tasks of physical education managers is to remove the barriers to participation in physical activities. Disabled people face more barriers to sports participation than nondisabled people, and women with physical-mobility disabilities experience numerous barriers. Identifying these barriers requires a comprehensive, valid and reliable questionnaire that is capable of assessing barriers so that we can provide solution to remove these barriers by using this tool and the results of this research in the next steps. The results of the present study resulted in the identification of 10 factors, including individual, structural, psychological, managerial, media support, the role of coach, economic, psychological factors related to pitiful and disrespectful attitudes, supportive public social and cultural-religious factors. The personal conditions of the disabled people affect their sport participation. Physical problems, lack of family support for the disabled family member, lack of understanding of the usefulness of sports activities, lack of knowledge of how to participate in sports, Downloaded from aassjournal.com at 8:23 +0330 on Friday November 26th 2021 8 Sports Participation Barriers of Athlete with Physical-Mobility Disabilities inability to leave home due to inappropriate place of residence, and lack of a companion and teammate are considered as individual barriers for disabled women.
• Parents, girls’ and Australian football: a constructivist grounded theory for attracting and retaining participation, Sam Elliott, Nadia Bevan, Catherine Litchfield, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, Volume 12(3), pp.392-413, (2020). Increasing girls’ participation in organised sport in Australia represents an elusive challenge for most sporting codes. Girls encounter a range of barriers and obstacles that serve to discourage initial and ongoing participation in youth sport. One setting that has flourished is Australian football, coinciding with the establishment of a professional competition known as Australian Football League Women (AFLW) in 2017. This is somewhat ironic given that Australian football is widely perceived to be a masculinised sporting domain characterised by violence and injury. Despite this, national participation data suggests that Australian football is one of the most popular preferences among contemporary girls and young women at a time when attracting and retaining girls in sport is inherently difficult. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to generate a grounded theory surrounding how Australian football attracts and retains girls’ participation. A constructivist grounded theory (GT) methodology was used involving eight focus groups with 45 participants (girls and parents) involved in Australian football. Data were analysed through a process of initial and focused coding, and theoretical integration, leading to the development of a substantive grounded theory that comprised three categories including (a) sources of attraction, (b) facilitators for participation, and (c) reinforcers for retention.
• The implications of female sport policy developments for the community-level sport sector: a perspective from Victoria, Australia, M. Casey, J. Fowlie, M. Charity, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 11(4), pp.657-678, (July 2019). This study examined trends in sport participation among females over a six-year period (2011–2016) within five popular sports, by age and region. It also identified future challenges community sports face in increasing female sport participation. Results showed that female sport participation levels increased over the six-year period, with greater proportional increases among the youngest age group (4–9 years) – the common entry age into the organised sport through modified sports programs. Retention of females in sport throughout adolescence and adulthood remains a challenge. Community-level sports face challenges to accommodate growth in female sport participation in terms of availability and quality of sport infrastructure and volunteer capacity – both human resources to deliver sport and organisational capacity to devise and implement strategies to recruit and retain females. They also face challenges associated with the social construction of gender within sport and club environments. Sport policies that encourage female sport participation need to also consider the supply of sport such as maximising infrastructure usage, gender equity facility usage policies and developing volunteer capacity.
• Indigenous Australian women promoting health through sport, Megan Stronach, Hazel Maxwell, Sonya Pearce, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(1), pp.5-20, (February 2019). Listening to Indigenous women and facilitating opportunities for them to take control of their own participation can help facilitate this process. Indigenous-women's only opportunities, partnerships with health agencies and sports organisations, culturally safe spaces and Indigenous women acting as role models are some factors that may augment Indigenous women's agency, and thus empowerment. Government, sports, community organisations and health agencies which provide these conditions in their program design can help to overcome entrenched social, historical and health inequalities that Indigenous women may experience.
• Associations between environmental attributes of facilities and female participation in sport: a systematic review, Clare Hanlon, Claire Jenkin, Melinda Craike, Managing Sport and Leisure , Volume 24(5), pp.294-306, (2019). Relevant articles were identified through seven databases and included if female specific results were reported on the association between attributes of the physical environment and sports participation. Most studies were moderate quality and in terms of life stage focused on adolescent girls. Environmental attributes of facilities including perceived safety, convenient location and suitable amenities in sport and school facilities were associated with female participation in sport. The authors conclude that attributes of the physical environment may influence female participation in sport. Conclusions are tentative, based on minimal studies in this area. More attention to identify environmental attributes of facilities associated with encouraging female participation in sport across their transitional life stage is required to enhance understanding and guide facility development.
• Engaging Fathers to Increase Physical Activity in Girls: The “Dads And Daughters Exercising and Empowered” (DADEE) Randomized Controlled Trial, Philip Morgan, Myles Young, Alyce Barnes, et al., Annals of Behavioral Medicine, Volume 53(1), pp.38-52, (2019). This study looked at the ways in which fathers may influence their daughter’s physical activity. Previous evidence has demonstrated that father's often spend more physically active time with their sons and rarely participate in family based programs. The trial intervention was an 8-week program including weekly educational and practical sessions plus home tasks. Assessments were at baseline, 2 months (post intervention), and 9 months. The primary outcomes were father–daughter physical activity levels (pedometry). Secondary outcomes included screen-time, daughters’ fundamental movement skill (perceived and objective) proficiency and fathers’ physical activity parenting practices. This study provided the first experimental evidence that efforts to increase physical activity behavior in preadolescent girls would benefit from a meaningful engagement of fathers.
• Gender differences in physical activity motivators and context preferences: a population-based study in people in their sixties. Jannique G. Z. van Uffelen, Asaduzzaman Khan, and Nicola W. Burton, BMC Public Health, (2017). Although regular participation in physical activity (PA) has health benefits across the life span, the proportion of people doing sufficient activity for these benefits decreases with age. The aim of this study was to identify motivating factors and context preferences for PA in people in their sixties, and to examine gender differences in these factors. The three leading motivating factors for both women and men were to prevent health problems; to feel good; and to lose weight. Women were more likely than men to be motivated by improving appearance; spending time with others; meeting friends; or losing weight. The three leading context preferences for both women and men were for activities close to home; at low cost; and that could be done alone. Women were more likely than men to prefer activities that are with people of the same sex; supervised; with people the same age; and at a fixed time. Women were less likely than men to prefer activities that are competitive; vigorous; require skill and practice; and done outdoors. These results suggest that PA options for people in their sixties should be tailored to meet gender specific interests in order to promote PA participation in this rapidly growing population group.
• Which Women are Highly Active Over a 12-Year Period? A Prospective Analysis of Data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health, Toby Pavey, Tracy Kolbe-Alexander, Leonie Uijdewilligen, et al., Sports Medicine, Volume 47(12), pp.2653-2666, (2017). The aims of this study were to identify the proportion of younger and mid-aged women who met the 300-min recommendation over a 12-year period, examine how the 'highly active' women achieved this level of activity (in terms of walking, moderate activity, and vigorous activity) and to identify the sociodemographic, biological, lifestyle and work-related determinants of being 'highly active'. The findings clearly indicate that the upper limit of the Australian PA guidelines is achievable for large numbers of women. Factors associated with being highly active were different for younger and mid-age women, but healthy weight, high education and paid work (full-time in the younger women, part-time in mid-age) were common characteristics of highly active women in both cohorts.
• Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women, Stronach, Megan, Maxwell, Hazel, Taylor, Tracy, Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 19(1), pp.7-26, (2016). Indigenous women have alarmingly low rates of participation in organised sport and physical activity (PA) in contemporary Australian society. To gain a better contextual and cultural understanding of the issues involved, we discussed the life experiences and the place of sport and PA with 22 Indigenous women. A complex amalgamation of cultural beliefs and traditions, history, gendered factors and geography are presented in the women's stories. Sport and PA were highly regarded, providing the women with opportunities to maintain strong communities, preserve culture and develop distinct identities as enablers. The women called for culturally safe spaces in which to engage in PA and noted the need for Indigenous females to act as role models. The study provides preliminary understandings that can be used to facilitate greater sport and PA inclusion and implications for future research are presented.
• Girls Just Wanna Have Fun: Understanding perceptions of effective strategies and outcomes in a female youth-driven physical activity-based life skills programme, Bean C, Forneris T, Fortier M, Journal of Sport for Development, Volume 3(4), (2015). The Girls Just Wanna Have Fun (GJWHF) program is community-based and youth-driven, the program is designed to help Canada’s female youth (ages 5 to 18 years) by providing opportunities for girls from low-income families to increase their physical activity and develop life skills. This study explored the contextual factors viewed by participants as important in the delivery of GJWHF and the perceived developmental outcomes resulting from participation. From the results, several critical factors emerged as themes, they were: (1) the importance of a girls' only environment; (2) establishment of a trusting and caring environment; (3) the importance of positive leader support; (4) the emergence and strengthening of friendships; (5) development of a positive future orientation; (6) strong identity formation; and (7) development of leadership and teamwork. Overall, results from this study indicated that the GJWHF program met these expectations. Participants perceived the program as providing a positive context, including supportive external leaders, and providing an opportunity to learn a number of life skills.
• Older women and their participation in exercise and leisure-time physical activity: the double edged sword of work, Carmichael F, Duberley J and Szmigin I, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, Volume 18(1), pp.42-60, (2015). This study explores the complex relationship between work and participation in exercise and leisure-time physical activity among older women (50+ years of age). What factors enable or constrain participation? More is known about the barriers than the motivating factors. Data for this study was taken from the British Household Survey and interviews with stakeholders. Time constraints, due primarily to work commitments but also family commitments, appear to be the greatest barrier to participation. The strongest enabling factors were the social aspects of sport participation, enjoyment, perceived health benefits, and prior experience (i.e. participation at a younger age). Similarly, the lack of engagement in sport during one’s younger years (or a negative experience) was given as a reason for not participating as a senior. This research highlights the influence that friends and partners have in motivating older women to participate. While employment status is a factor, other barriers to participation included economic considerations and psychological inhibitors (e.g. fear of injury, embarrassment and lack of confidence). Life-history experience of activity can be important as either an enabler or inhibitor; memories and perceptions of participation experiences in school can be long lasting.
• Narrating the Multiplicity of ‘Derby Grrrl’: Exploring Intersectionality and the Dynamics of Affect in Roller Derby, Adele Pavlidis, Simone Fullagar, Leisure Sciences, Volume 35(5), pp.422-437, (2013). This article explores how identity categories intersect to shape the meaning of roller derby for different women. Narratives recount the complex affective relations (passion, frustration, pride, shame) that women negotiate in forming leisure identities in relation to the social context of their lives. The article aims to contribute to the development of feminist thinking about leisure as a negotiated space of transformation, creativity and difference.
• “It's all about the journey”: women and cycling events, Simone Fullagar, Adele Pavlidis, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 3(2), pp.149-170, (2012). The purpose of this paper is to develop a gendered understanding of women's experience of a mass cycle tour event. The research findings identify a number of gender issues for professionals to reflexively consider in designing, promoting, managing and evaluating mass cycle tour events. The findings have implications for how active tourism events are conceptualised, promoted and managed as gender inclusive.
• Physical Activity of Remote Indigenous Australian Women: A Postcolonial Analysis of Lifestyle, Doune Macdonald, Rebecca Abbott, David Jenkins, Leisure Sciences, Volume 34(1), pp.39-54, (2012). In the context of rising chronic diseases amongst Indigenous peoples, there are calls for the adoption of more healthy lifestyles. In this context, this paper explores thoughts about physical activity from 21 Indigenous families through the voices of women and girls living in remote rural communities in the Torres Strait and Northern Peninsula Area of Australia. Speaking back to physical activity as a lifestyle choice, three consistent themes emerged: shame; gendered positioning; and welfarism. In conclusion, the perspectives of Torres Strait islanders and Northern Peninsula Area communities suggest that there are deeply embedded ways of thinking about the body, familial obligations and the provision of and access to being active that are not consistent with Western health policies predicated upon individuals shouldering responsibility for taking exercise.

• Women in Sport x Getty Images Menopause curation, Women in Sport, (2021). Women in Sport has partnered with Getty Images to launch a curation of ground-breaking images and short films that challenge the way women going through the menopause are portrayed in society.
• She Belongs: Building Social Connection for Lasting Participation in Sport, Canadian Women and Sport, (March 2020). This resource is designed for coaches who are ready to intentionally support equitable sport. She Belongs offers practical recommendations to create social connection and better engage girls in the Learn to Train and Train to Train stages of the Long-Term Development in Sport and Physical Activity Framework (LTD). Everyone involved—sport and physical activity organizations, coaches, managers and leaders, as well as parents/guardians—plays an integral role in creating the environments where girls can participate and have fun.
• How to get (and keep) girls playing: strategies for engaging and retaining girls in sport, Made to Play, (2020). There are some basic things that coaches can do ahead of time to make sure that they are creating girl-centered environments. Some of these things have to do with the physical space, the language we use, the examples we elevate and the way we model behaviors. In some cases, like with facilities, coaches may not have direct control over these things. Regardless, it’s important for them to understand and advocate to program administrators for the needs of the girls on their teams.
• Women in Sport Communication and Marketing Strategies, Victorian Government Change Our Game, (April 2019). The Change Our Game Women in Sport and Recreation Communication and Marketing Guidelines have been developed in conjunction with the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (VEOHRC) to assist community sport and recreation organisations looking to develop inclusive communication and marketing practices.
• HERA Toolkit, (accessed 1 March 2023). Whether you’re a coach, teacher or sports organisation we’ve pulled together resources, case studies, videos and research on how best approach getting girls active – have a look for yourself!
• International Guide to Designing Sport Programmes for Girls, Women Win, (accessed 1 March 2023). This is a collaboratively-authored tool designed to help organisations develop and improve effective and sustainable programmes. It is intended to promote a global conversation between people who are passionate about changing girls' lives through sport. Programme Design includes these considerations: (1) understanding and overcoming challenges; (2) choosing the right sport for your programme; (3) using a curriculum; (4) building support for your programme; (5) safe spaces; (6) recruiting girls; and (7) developing leadership.
• Keeping girls in sport, Jumpstart/Respect Group, (accessed 1 March 2023). Developed in partnership with the Coaching Association of Canada and Canadian Women and Sport this is an online resource that helps coaches and youth activity leaders to create safe and respectful environments for female athletes.
• Project 51 Toolkit, Women in Sport, (accessed 1 March 2023). Project 51 aims to help girls in the most deprived areas of the UK fulfil their potential and use sport to overcome the impact of negative gender stereotypes. It provides practical advice, tools and research relating to the themes 'think', 'say', and 'do'.

• Menopause Stories short film, Women in Sport, YouTube, (19 May 2021). Women in Sport has partnered with Getty Images to launch a curation of ground-breaking images and short films that challenge the way women going through the menopause are portrayed in society. They showcase women who have experienced menopause, illustrating the joy of exercise and how it changed their lives building community, friendship, adventure, fun and camaraderie.
• Play Fair, Fast and Female Canada, (2015). This documentary film questions the assumption that women’s fight for full rights in the world of sports is over. The film explores five decades of activism and legal challenges that women fought to ensure they would have equal access and rights to compete in sports on elite and community levels.
• This Girl Can – what about you?, National Lottery, YouTube, (23 January 2015). Are you up for breaking a sweat? The UK Lottery-funded This Girl Can campaign s designed to inspire you to ‘sweat like a pig’ – and ‘feel like a fox’ while you’re doing it.
• Women Win: digital storytelling project, Women Win, (accessed 1 March 2023). Women Win is committed to not just telling stories of girls' sport achievement and the impact those stories have, but helping build the skill and leadership of girls to tell their own story. A collection of videos is available to listen to and view.

Clearinghouse videos

• Pathway considerations for supporting the Female athlete, Linley Frame, Australian Swimmers Association, Debbie Fisher, Football Federation Australia, Kristen Veal, Basketball Australia COE, Eddie Dennis, South Australian Institute of Sport, Winning Pathways Workshop, (13 December 2017).
• Women in Sport - breaking the mould, Giles Thompson, CEO, Racing Victoria, Mandy Spear, COO, Titanium Security Arena, Laura Johnston, General Manager Performance and Culture, Swimming Australia, Our Sporting Future Conference, (16 November 2017).
• Sport and gender equality, Kate Jenkins, Federal Sex Discrimination Commissioner, Our Sporting Future Conference, (16 November 2017).
• Growing your game for girls, New South Wales Sport and Recreation, Sports Talks workshop, (20 May 2013).
  • Research to practice, Cathy Gorman-Brown, Project Officer.
  • You kick like a girl, Good for you, Libby Sadler, AFL.
  • Growing the game for school girls, Michael Doyle, Australian Rugby Union.
  • Linking with local Government, Amanda Spalding, Sport and Recreation NSW.
• Understanding the Female Athlete, Sue Robson, Head of Physiology, Sport Scotland Institute of Sport, Smart Talk Seminar Series, (17 April 2012).

• Revolutionising sports uniforms for women & girls, Club Respect, (22 November 2023). In this episode, we speak with Professor Clare Hanlon, who argues that respect is about giving choices and that women and girls must feel confident and comfortable stepping onto the field of play.
• Sports uniforms for women - from bikini to burkini, Amanda Smith, ABC RN, (20 March 2021). Women and girls often feel uncomfortable about having to wear tight and revealing sports outfits. It's a reason they drop out of sport. For some it's about body image. For others it's cultural and religious. What are sports doing to address this?

• Victoria University study shows the majority of female umpires and referees are unhappy with their uniforms, Erin Marsicovetere, ABC, (20 February 2024). The first woman to officiate an AFL grand final once had to buy her umpiring pants from a camping store because the ones provided to her were designed for men. A study by Victoria University found uniforms were discouraging women from becoming referees and umpires. The study cited a lack of female styles and sizes and practical features such as pockets and breathable fabrics as a major issue for women and girls officiating sport. In the years since Roffey officiated the 2012 grand final and with more women joining the AFL's umpiring ranks, she said there has been a much sharper focus on ensuring women are catered for and female-cut uniforms are now the norm within the league.
• European Club Association Fund Pioneering Research Into Developing Women-Specific Boots, Asif Burhan, Forbes, (26 June 2023). The study conducted over 18 months highlights the transformative potential of well-designed and tailored footwear for women players which they believe will offer significant improvements in player performance and a reduction in the risk of discomfort and injuries for female players. The ECA - a body representing the interests of over 200 professional clubs in Europe - believe the findings will act as a "global reference point for brands and consumers" by filling a gap in knowledge and aid the design of female-specific boots which prioritize player safety, comfort and performance.
• ‘Truly alarming’: girls put off sport in UK by clothing requirements, Ed Aarons, The Guardian, (7 April 2023). A new study has found that 70% of women saw girls drop out of sport when they were at school due to clothing and related body image concerns, with many left feeling “sexualised” by what they were forced to wear.
• Matildas unveil first period-conscious kit design for Women’s World Cup, Caitlin Cassidy, The Guardian, (4 April 2023). For the first time, the Matildas kit will feature period protection in the base layer under the shorts, while the New Zealand women’s team will swap their traditional white shorts for teal blue. They are the most comprehensive football team collections created for women by Nike, with the fit and material catered to the specific movements of female sports-players. The Australian design, backed by women’s research and athlete feedback, integrate “leak protection” into the shorts with a combination of a laminate gusset, liner, and short construction. The vice-president of women’s global sports apparel, Jordana Katcher, said Nike used 3D technology to create the “built-in brief” shape that aligns with the contours of the body.
• T-shirts, leggings and skorts provide glimpse of truly inclusive future for netball, Erin Delahunty, The Guardian, (27 February 2023). The days of the uniform anxiety that forced many women and girls to walk away from the sport may finally have come to an end.
• Designs of sports uniforms for female athletes affect practicality, Jessica Zang, The Oracle, (13 April 2022). When women first started competing in women’s sports, many were concerned that women would undermine the conventional “masculinity” of sports.
• Flexible sport uniform policies keep girls in the game, Victoria University, (22 March 2022). A landmark study, funded through the Victorian government’s Change Our Game initiative, has confirmed a key strategy to keep girls and women involved in community sport is to let them choose their uniforms. The phase two study focuses on case studies across netball, swimming and cricket. It found flexible uniform policies and regulations improved girls’ and women’s comfort, readiness and desire to play by:
• encouraging ongoing participation in the sport (48% agreed)
• making them feel more confident (41% increase), happier (34% increase), and less self-conscious (30% reduction)
• providing more freedom (28% agreed) and allowing them to perform at their best (20% agreed).
• Competing with confidence: Why we need to bring women’s sport uniforms into the 21st century, Katie Lebel, The Conversation, (16 November 2021). Imagine watching your child fall in love with a sport. Picture them revelling in the thrill of a good shot, beaming with the rush of competitive success. Now imagine their face after someone tells them that to compete, they must wear a bikini bottom with a side width of only 9.9 centimetres.
• Inclusive girls' netball uniforms create positive change on court, Madeleine Spencer, ABC Gippsland, (11 September 2021). Research from a Victoria University survey reveals girls feeling self-conscious in sport uniforms may be a reason girls' participation rates in sport are so low, particularly compared to boys.
• Challenging women's uniform in sport, sportanddev.org, (3 September 2021). Women’s participation in sport, at both elite and grassroot levels, has been limited due to a number of factors, but most of them boil down to sexism – many think that it is immodest for women to jump around, play and even enjoy themselves. However, as more women have started to join in sport and play, new ways of restricting them have propped up, and one of these is through dress codes.
• Sexism and sport: why body-baring team uniforms are bad for girls and women, Sarah Zipp, Sasha Sutherland, Lilamani de Soysa, The Conversation, (5 August 2021). Team outfits and fashion were not supposed to be a big talking point at the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo. But protests over skimpy uniforms by two women’s teams in the months before the games have brought bikinis and high-cut leotards into the spotlight.
• Uniforms have more meaning than what we wear, Felicity Smith, Siren, (3 August 2021). Uniforms are significant—historically so. Uniforms in sport are there to identify, to unite, to unify the player with the watcher. Athletes can use them to show pride, either in their country or for themselves. Sportswear should allow for both comfort and peak performance. It should also respect an athlete’s right to choose something that they feel respects them as an individual.
• Uniform Agreement - it's time to change sports uniforms, Victoria University, (26 February 2021). Girls and young women aged 12 to 18 years in rural, regional and metropolitan regions throughout Australia completed the survey. Findings identified Australian girls everywhere shared similar views on uniforms: they want function over fashion; breathable stretchy material; and dark colours for any shorts, skirts or pants. They also prefer t-shirts and shorts over skirts. Having a choice is vital, especially for girls aged 12 to 14. The study also highlights varying preferences state-to-state. Girls and young women from the Northern Territory are 16% less likely to prefer wearing tracksuit pants or leggings, while in Western Australia 53% are less likely to prefer wearing singlets for sport outside school, compared with girls from Victoria (63%) and NSW (72%). The research highlights that the type of sports uniforms available to girls when deciding to play sport is a critical factor in making them feel confident about being active. In summary, girls and young women want:
  • uniforms that make them feel ready for sport
  • clothing that fits them well
  • dark coloured shorts/skirts/pants
  • uniforms made from appropriate materials
  • no unisex clothing
  • options that do not make them feel over-exposed.

• Sportswomen’s Apparel Around the World: uniformly discussed, Linda K Fuller (ed.), Springer, (2021). This volume presents a collection of essays that explore the relationship between sporting clothing and gender. Drawing on uniform and sports apparel as a means of exploring the socio-sexual politics of the contemporary world, the contributions analyse the historical, political-economic, socio-cultural and sport-specific dimensions of gendered clothing in sport.

• New Inclusive Uniform Policy released, Gymnastics Australia, (February 2023). Acknowledging every Australian should have the right to participate in sport the way they feel comfortable with, Gymnastics Australia has released its new Uniform policy with the aim of making the sport more accessible to every Australian.
  • Uniform policy, (approved December 2022).
• Inclusive uniform highlights netball's evolution, Netball Australia, (13 December 2022). The Netball in Australia Uniform Guidelines cater for all participants of the sport and recognise the various individual preferences and religious beliefs of netballers. The guidelines come into effect from January 1, 2023 and have been adopted by all eight Member Organisations. The inclusive guidelines outline recommendations for players and umpires at all levels of the game and provide the option to choose from a combination of uniform variations. Optional uniform items, which will also protect players from all weather conditions, include a dress, singlet, bodysuit, short sleeve or long sleeve shirt, skirt, shorts and long pants.
  • Uniform guidelines: Netball in Australia, (December 2022).
• Multicultural Female Uniform Guidelines, Western Australian Department of Local Government, Sport and Cultural Industries, (July 2020). Women from culturally and linguistically diverse (CaLD) backgrounds are now be able to participate in sport more easily, with the release of this Australian-first multicultural uniform guide. This uniform guideline aims to show the different options for girls and women to participate in Australian football, basketball, cricket, gymnastics, netball, football, swimming, and volleyball in Western Australia.

• What type of uniforms do women want to wear when they referee or umpire sport? National research insights from current officials and non-officials, Victoria University, (February 2024). Insights were gained from 286 survey respondents (250 current officials and 36 non-officials) comprising girls and women aged 15 – 80 years (avg age 33 years). Each group answered approximately 20-items that were carefully curated to gain insights into sport officiating uniforms. Responses were gained from each state and territory in Australia, predominately these were from Victoria (36%), New South Wales (23%) and Queensland (23%). Intersectional identities included LGBTIQ+ (12%), born outside of Australia (11%), a mental illness (11%), speaks another language at home (5%), a physical disability (4%) and/or an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (2%).
  • 61% of referees and umpires feel uncomfortable wearing their current uniform.
  • 82% would feel more confident officiating if wearing their preferred uniform.
  • Nearly two thirds of non-officials identified uniforms as a barrier to officiating.
  • Preferred uniform considerations were: comfort and fit; professional and identifiable; choice and flexibility; and, practical features.
  • Harassment/discrimination, lack of flexibility, inadequate training and gender stereotypes were also recognised as barriers to officiating.
• In the Game: Enabling Muslim girls to play sport and be active, Change the Game, (June 2023). The experiences of Muslim girls and women participating in sport and physical activity are diverse, and can be influenced by a range of factors, including social, cultural, religious and economic factors. This summary outlines key findings from research that examined barriers to participation in sport and physical activity by Muslim girls, and highlights opportunities and solutions to overcoming these barriers. Some of the key barriers and challenges for Muslim girls in playing sport identified through this research include:
  • The hijab worn by women and girls makes them visible targets for overt and covert forms of racism and micro-aggression.
  • Lack of options or flexibility in sporting uniforms, particularly in relation to girls wearing the hijab.
  • Cost of membership, uniforms, equipment and transport.
• What Girls Want in Sport Uniforms to make them feel comfortable and confident to participate in sport: A National Study, Victoria University, (February 2021). Qualitative research suggests that feeling self-conscious in sport uniforms may be one reason why adolescent girls drop out of sport. This is the first national study to adopt quantitative methods to determine girls’ preferences for sports uniforms. We found that girls need to be provided with flexible options of uniform styles that are made from comfortable material and designed for girls. Findings from this study could enhance school and sport club uniform policies for girls when playing sport or being physically active to assist with their confidence, feeling comfortable and and readiness to participate.
• Physically literate girls: the need for schools to develop girls who are physically literate, ACHPER Victoria, Victoria University and the Office for Women in Sport and Recreation, (2020). According to recent research, Australia is ranked one of the worst performers for 11–17 year old girls globally. Over 90% of girls surveyed reported insufficient levels of physical activity, with a marked decrease in sport participation by girls during the 12–14 years of age and from 17+ years. As girls grow older, they report lower levels of enjoyment, confidence, competence and understanding, particularly during the teenage years. Some of the key identified barriers included: body image; low confidence; prioritising schoolwork; gender constraints; less focus on competition; and feeling uncomfortable.
• Women and Sport: insights into the growing rise and importance of female fans and female athletes. Repucom, (2014). The rapid rise in the importance, influence, and value of female fans has been one of the most distinctive shifts in the sports marketing landscape in the last 50 years. This has been driven by some major societal and cultural changes around the world and the increasing participation of women in sport. Fans are at the centre of the sports marketing equation and one of the primary reasons why sponsors invest in sport; female fans are considered of particularly high value to some sponsors given their influence over purchasing decisions. Using data derived from a large number of interviews around the world, this report looks at several commercial and societal implications of the growing female fan population, as well as factors influencing women's participation in sport. Key findings regarding motivators and barriers to sport participation follow:
  • The main drivers for women’s participation in sports were: general health; stress relief; weight loss; being around friends; social connections; personal reward (feeling good); and getting out of the house.
  • The main barriers for women’s participation in sports were: feeling outside one’s comfort zone; injury; cost; fear of failure; embarrassment (body image); not meeting self-expectations; and logistics (child care, transport, facility location).

• A multi-phase intervention study of sports bra prescription for elite UK female athletes preparing for the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics, Joanna Wakefield-Scurr, Amy Sanchez, Melissa Jones, et al., Research in Sports Medicine, Volume 32(1), pp.186-200, (2024). Athletes report poor breast/bra knowledge, breast pain, sports bras causing lacerations and chafing, negatively affecting sports performance. No bra interventions to address these issues are reported. Working with 142 UK female athletes preparing for Tokyo Olympics/Paralympics (27 sports), this multi-phase intervention assessed breast/bra knowledge, preferences, issues via surveys and breast/bra assessments. Data were used to develop two sports bras. A total of 112 athletes were prescribed one of the new bras through individual assessments. After four weeks, wear athletes completed evaluations. Pre-intervention breast/bra knowledge was low (83% ≤average), multiple breast/bra issues were reported and most athletes wore ill-fitting, loose bras, offering limited support. Post-intervention, 63% reported improved knowledge and 97% reported their prescribed bra as better than their original bra. Eighty-seven per cent reported benefitting from this intervention, with 17% reporting improved performance. This intervention effectively assessed sports bra needs, developed and implemented solutions, which improved knowledge and potentially performance for some UK athletes.
• Understanding experience, knowledge and perceived challenges related to bra fit for sports participation: a scoping review, Lauren Haworth, Robyn Aitkenhead, David Grecic, et al., Research in Sports Medicine, Volume 32(2), pp.302-315, (2024). The breasts are reported as the fourth largest barrier to participation in physical activity (PA). This scoping review provides a comprehensive understanding of experiences, knowledge and challenges relating to bra fit and sports participation. The search strategy was adopted by the Preferred Reporting Items for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines and multiple databases were searched. All research was in English and within the last 20 years. Twenty-three studies were included. Key themes from the studies are breast motion during PA, sports bra design, perceived barriers to participation in PA and education/knowledge of breast support and bra fit. Increasing breast support reduces breast movement during PA yet breast motion and bra fit are still the most common breast concerns for females. This is likely influenced by poor breast knowledge, leading to poor breast support choices. Future research should explore to what extent breast motion, knowledge and bra fit influences sport participation, and this research should include a more diverse range of adult ages, cup sizes, ethnicities and PA levels to provide a wider understanding.
• Practical, professional or patriarchal? An investigation into the socio-cultural impacts of gendered school sports uniform and the role uniform plays in shaping female experiences of school sport, Tess Howard, Sport, Education and Society, (6 April 2023). This paper reports the findings of a mixed-methods study which investigates the socio-cultural impacts of UK gendered school sport uniform and the role uniform plays in shaping female school sport experiences. Drawing on an extensive analytical survey with over 400 women of all-ages and 8 interviews with women aged 18–24, it explores how school sport uniform directly impacts female sporting experiences and participation in physical activity, and how uniform policy could be changed to promote greater female sport participation. This paper assesses how gendered school sport uniform contributes to the disciplining of the ‘ideal feminine body’ in schoolgirls and the construction of behavioural gender binaries in sport. The data reveal gendered sport uniform influences the development of a ‘fear of masculinisation’ in sport and common athletic-feminine identity tensions in teenage girls. The research finds gendered school sport uniform plays a major role in the high drop-out rates of teenage girls in school sport and offers practical insight into how policy could be changed to promote inclusivity, comfort and greater female sport participation. This paper proposes redesigning traditional gendered school sport policy to focus on ‘enabling’ participation has huge potential to transform female embodied and psychological experiences of school sport and increase school sport participation and enjoyment.
• A multi-stage intervention assessing, advising and customising sports bras for elite female British athletes, Joanna Wakefield-Scurr, Amy Sanchez, Melissa Jones, Research in Sports Medicine, Volume 31(5), pp.703-718, (2023). Appropriate breast support is recommended in sport; however, what constitutes appropriate support is complex, individual and often sports specific, particularly in elite sport given the wear duration. This intervention educated, assessed and advised elite British female athletes on breasts and bras; those with unresolved issues engaged in bespoke bra interventions. Following educational workshops (n = 80), breast/bra surveys (n = 60), individual bra assessments (n = 37); a rower, shooter, and hockey player participated in the bespoke bra intervention. Eighty-three per cent of athletes rated their breast/bra knowledge as ≤average. Fifty-one per cent experienced breast pain, affecting performance for 29%; seven used medication and one surgery to relieve symptoms. In individual bra assessments most wore ill-fitting, unsupportive bras and wanted bra advice. Bespoke bra interventions eliminated breast pain: for the rower, improved breast position and spine rotation; for the shooter, repositioned tissue and improved performance; and for the hockey player, accommodated smart devices. Whilst bespoke bra development is challenging, most elite athlete breast/bra issues are resolved via education, advice and fitting.
• Ideas for action: Exploring strategies to address body image concerns for adolescent girls involved in sport, Alyona Koulanova, Catherine Sabiston, Eva Pila, et al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 56, (September 2021). Despite the extensive benefits of sport participation, girls consistently participate at lower rates, are more likely to drop out, and report worse sport experiences compared to boys. Body image is a critical factor identified to influence sport participation for adolescent girl athletes. The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify feasible and realistic strategies to mitigate and address body image concerns for adolescent girls involved in team sports at recreational or competitive levels. Seventy-one participants were involved in individual interviews across sport stakeholder groups, including 20 girl athletes, 11 parents of girl athletes, 13 coaches, 13 referees, and 14 sport administrators. Using a thematic analysis approach, 35 actionable strategies were identified that spanned four main themes: eliminating body image stigma, reconsidering uniforms and sport attire, from top to bottom - everyone has a role, and body-positive role modeling. The strategies spanned various systemic, environmental, social, and individual levels that are operationalized within an ecological model. Findings suggest that body image concerns in the sport environment are complex and call for multifaceted strategies that prioritize both the management of body image concerns and fostering of positive body image as a focal outcome.
• The impact of athletic clothing style and body awareness on motor performance in women, Elizabeth Cox, Catherine Sabiston, April Karlinsky, et al., Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, Volume 27, pp.1025-1035, (2020). The present study investigated the influence of the style of athletic clothing and body awareness on visual-motor performance in women. Participants (women ages 18–35 years) were randomly assigned to wear tight and revealing (TR group, n = 40) or loose and concealing (LC group, n = 40) athletic clothing. All participants completed the same visual-motor aiming task to assess spatiotemporal measures of motor performance. In addition to the clothing, participants were primed to be conscious of their bodies via measurements of height, weight, and waist circumference; photographs taken of their bodies; a computerized body-size distortion task; and a mirror in the testing chamber. Results revealed that the TR group had increased movement time variability and did not show performance improvements relative to the LC group. These differences suggest that style of clothing may influence motor performance in women by reallocating cognitive resources towards the body and away from the motor task at hand. This research highlights the interactions between cognitive and motor processes and, potentially, the importance of considering the impact of clothing on performance in many different contexts.
• If people are wearing pink stuff they’re probably not real fans”: Exploring women’s perceptions of sport fan clothing, Katherine Sveinson, Larena Hoeber, Kim Toffoletti, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(5), pp.736-747, (2019). Given the growth in the female sport fan base of North American major league sports and the development and expansion of women’s team-related apparel, the purpose of this study was to examine women sport fans’ perceptions of team apparel. The authors collected data through in-depth interviews with 16 Canadian women who self-identified as fans of professional sport teams. They perceived a lack of options in team apparel, despite the development of women’s clothing lines. Results suggest that sport teams need to recognize the diversity of women’s gender identities and expressions and provide a wider range of clothing that demonstrate their status as authentic fans.
• NCAA DII Female Student-Athletes' Perceptions of Their Sport Uniforms and Body Image, Lauer, Earlynn; Zakrajsek, Rebecca; Fisher, Leslee; et al., Journal of Sport Behavior, Volume 41(1), pp.40-63, (January 2018). Sport uniforms can create a platform for comparison between the female athlete body and the societal female body ideal. Because many female athlete uniforms become tighter and more revealing as athletes transition from youth to adult sport participation, it is likely that body objectification in sport may begin in adolescence and continue through adulthood. In the current study. 18 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II female student-athletes from four sports (basketball, cross-country, softball, and volleyball) were interviewed about their perceptions of sport uniforms and body image as they transitioned from youth to adult sport participation. Results suggested that perceptions of uniforms transitioned from being "not even thought about" pre-puberty to being more gender-marked during a critical time in female athletes' physical development. In addition, many participants described comparisons of their pubescent body with the female athlete body. Finally, participants described going through a process of first feeling discomfort, then normalizing, and ultimately accepting their sport uniform.
• Performance or appearance? Young female sport participants’ body negotiations, Carolina Lunde, Kristina Holmqvist Gattario, Body Image, Volume 21, pp.81-89, (June 2017). The aim of this qualitative study was to examine young female sport participants’ experiences and thoughts in terms of sport, their bodies, and social appearance norms. Six focus groups with female sport participants (N = 25) from Sweden were conducted. Participants raised many positive experiences in relation to their sport participation, but they also witnessed a conflict in the intersection between the culture within their sport (emphasizing physical performance) and the culture outside their sport (emphasizing physical appearance). Through thematic analysis, four themes illustrating the balancing act between these two cultures were formed: (a) the performing body versus the objectified body, (b) food as fuel versus source of shame, (c) appreciation of body type diversity versus appearance prejudice, and (d) empowerment and agency versus disempowerment and restraints. The findings of this study indicate that young women who engage in sport have to face complex, ambiguous, and restricting norms and notions.
• Roller derby uniforms: The pleasures and dilemmas of sexualized attire, Travis Beaver, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Volume 51(6), (July 2016). Previous research on gender and sports has focused on the ways women athletes emphasize their femininity to counter critics who conflate female athleticism with mannishness and lesbianism. My findings from an ethnographic study of three roller derby leagues suggest that many “rollergirls” view their hyper-feminine, sexualized uniforms as a playful and pleasurable expression of their sexual agency, not as a means to prove their femininity or heterosexuality. By combining these uniforms with a full-contact sport, rollergirls attempt to “undo gender” by actively resisting the gender binary that equates athleticism and toughness with masculinity. However, while rollergirls assert that wearing sexualized, feminine uniforms is a “choice,” others feel pressured to dress “sexy” in order to attract fans. In addition, their uniforms sometimes lead to unwanted attention from some men in the crowd who misinterpret the intended meanings of their self-presentation. This research emphasizes the importance of understanding women’s individual feelings of agency in the context of social inequality.
• The Influence of the Breast on Sport and Exercise Participation in School Girls in the United Kingdom, Joanna Scurr, Nicola Brown, Jenny Smith, et al., Journal of Adolescent Health, Volume 58(2), pp.167-173, (February 2016). This study addresses important gaps in the literature related to the influence of the breast on sport and exercise participation and breast-specific concerns in school girls in the UK. The results of this study show that the breast has a substantial influence on sports and exercise, with 46% of girls reporting that their breasts had an effect on their participation in compulsory sport.

• Not all pregnancies are being treated equally in Super Netball, Brittany Carter, ABC News, (22 March 2023). An important detail missing in Super Netball's parental leave policy will be a key focus throughout the bargaining process of the next collective player agreement (CPA), which is being worked through by Netball Australia (NA) and the Australian Netball Players' Association (ANPA).
• FIFA’s landmark parental leave ruling puts women’s sport on notice, Angus Dalton, Sydney Morning Herald, (20 January 2023). The football world, and sport at large, is on notice after FIFA made a landmark discrimination ruling against one of Europe’s biggest clubs for their underpayment of a player on maternity leave.
• From one mom to another: Tips for being active after welcoming a new baby, Corliss Bean, Iris Lesser and Talia Ritondo, SIRC blog, (4 May 2022). In this blog, we outline key considerations for new moms based on the advice of the postpartum women in our research. We also offer tips for returning to movement with the aim of optimizing physical and mental health during the postpartum period.
• Elite athletes shouldn’t have to choose between their sport and pregnancy, Margie Davenport, Tara-Leigh McHugh, The Conversation, (13 March 2022). The 2022 Beijing Games celebrated a growing number of Olympian mothers. Bobsledder Elana Meyers Taylor (United States), biathlete Anaïs Chevalier-Bouchet (France) and luger Natalie Geisenberger (Germany) all medalled in their respective sports. These “super moms” seemingly can do it all. But behind these successes are the struggles, challenges and heartbreaking decisions that elite athlete mothers are forced to make.
• “Playing for team motherhood”: Returning to team sport after childbirth, Talia Ritondo, SIRC blog, (15 December 2021). My master’s thesis examined how gendered expectations of motherhood affected postnatal women as they re-engaged in community team sport. I interviewed 6 mothers, 3 times over a period of 3 months. Through these interviews, I learned about the challenges that new moms face when returning to sport, how social support and relationships help moms in their return to sport, and how moms felt empowered when they played sports. This blog aims to help sport leaders empathize with postnatal women’s experiences, inspiring the creation of more inclusive sporting spaces.
• The Players With Kids Are Alright, Emma Baccellieri, SI.com, (27 May 2021). For years we asked: Can women’s leagues support parents? Given the WNBA's robust new plan for propping up players with children—and the support seen elsewhere—now the new question is: Can they afford not to?
• How Exercise Affects Pregnant Women, Alex Hutchinson, Outside, (15 May 2021). A new study looks for adaptations in the placenta, and finds positive effects from exercise during pregnancy.
• FIFA steps up protection of female players and football coaches, FIFA, (19 November 2020). The FIFA Football Stakeholders Committee (FSC) has backed two sets of landmark reforms to strengthen the protection of female players, as well as football coaches. The proposed new rules include a number of key measures: Mandatory maternity leave of at least 14 weeks, at a minimum of two thirds of the player’s contracted salary. On their return to work, clubs must reintegrate female players and provide adequate medical and physical support. No female player should ever suffer a disadvantage as a result of becoming pregnant, thus securing greater employment protection for women in football. The FSC also approved new rules to better protect the position of football coaches.
• 'Physically and emotionally I wasn't ready': Hockeyroo Jodie Kenny on returning to sport after pregnancy, Amanda Shalala, ABC News, (2 October 2020). Hockeyroo Jodie Kenny was back playing elite sport nine months after giving birth to her son.
• Exercising too much could affect fertility in young, healthy women, expert warns, Amanda Shalala, ABC News, (30 August 2020). Why would young, healthy women who keep their body in peak physical shape struggle to conceive? Well, it's complicated.
• Maternity Leave—Not Higher Pay—Is the WNBA’s Real Win, Maggie Mertens, The Atlantic, (2 February 2020). Maternity leave and parental benefits aren’t usually the first things that come to mind when considering equality for women athletes. But the WNBA took a major step forward on that front last month, announcing a new collective-bargaining agreement with its players’ association that will increase salaries significantly and guarantee players fully paid maternity leave for the first time in its history.
• Pregnancy and Players Agreements, Katrina Nissen, Netball Scoop, (8 January 2020). When considering the fact that netball is consistently rated as the highest female-dominated team sport in the country, it is little wonder that other sports turn to Netball Australia when looking for ways to improve their player’s parenting provisions. So, what do netball’s provisions look like? And, how have they shaped the playing future for female athletes across the country?
• Fertility and Elite Female Athletes, Jenny Sinclair, Netball Scoop, (2020). A series of case study reports based on the experiences of three elite female netball players who have used assisted reproduction to try and address fertility issues, some of which are particularly relevant to elite sports women. The trailblazers hope that by sharing some of their more intimate details, that people might gain a wider understanding of the problems they faced, and why all active females should consider their health as well as their sporting careers.
  • Part One: Barriers to Fertility
  • Part Two: How can female athletes be better supported
  • Part Three: Geva Mentor – I retrieved my eggs
  • Part Four: Natalie Medhurst – pregnant after fertility treatment
  • Part Five: Sonia Mkoloma – multiple miscarriages
• Infographic: Guidance for medical, health and fitness professionals to support women in returning to running postnatally [paywall], Donnelly GM, Rankin A, Mills H, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 54(18), pp.1114-1115, (2020). Profound physical and physiological changes accompany pregnancy,2 and subsequent tissue healing following childbirth is understood to take 4–6 months.3 These healing timescales should be considered to support a successful return to running postnatally.
• Infographic. Prenatal physical activity: baby steps for better health [paywall], Margie H Davenport, Trevor Horbachewsky, Michael Brown, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 54(6), pp.360-361, (2020). Based on the 2019 Canadian guideline for physical activity throughout pregnancy this infographic aims to provide women with pertinent information on the benefits of being active throughout the pregnancy and empower medical professionals to advise patients on physical activity throughout pregnancy with confidence and clarity.
• Leagues, NCAA following suit with pregnancy protections, Mia Jackson, Global Sport Matters, (3 December 2019). For years, when an athlete became pregnant, other numbers were top of mind in addition to the all-important 10 fingers and 10 toes of the baby. What’s the new ranking when I get back? How many years are left on my contract? Am I still scholarship eligible? Then, the ultimate — How long before they expect me back and ready to play?
• Is vigorous exercise safe during the third trimester of pregnancy? Kassia Beetham, The Conversation, (16 September 2019). Expectant mothers receive an avalanche of information about potential risks to their baby. There’s a growing list of foods, toxins and environmental threats to avoid. It’s normal for this to lead to an increased level of anxiety. As a result, some women believe it’s safer to avoid any risks in pregnancy, no matter how small. Vigorous exercise may be considered one of these risks. But we’ve recently reviewed the research and found vigorous exercise is safe during pregnancy, including in the third trimester. And not only is it safe; it’s healthy, too.
• Opinion: Stop penalizing female athletes for getting pregnant, Victoria Jackson, Global Sport Matters, (23 May 2019). What happens when your body is your instrument of work and also the vessel that carries and nurtures life? While this question is faced by all women who enjoy an active lifestyle and begin a pregnancy, it’s a question of critical importance to elite female athletes. An increasing number are kicking butt and choosing to stay in professional and international competition longer, and, often, during pregnancy and after childbirth.
• Pregnant AFLW players given choice to opt out, Nat Edwards, AFL.com.au, (3 November 2017). Pregnant AFLW players will be given the right to decide whether or not they continue to participate in the competition, under the League's new pregnancy and parental management travel policy.
• Benefits of sport for the pregnant woman, Wendy Brown, Caroline Finch, Diana Robinson, et al., Sports Medicine Australia, (2017). The following information is based on research in the area of exercise and pregnancy, which is current at the time of writing. It is designed to assist those who are involved in the management of active pregnant women, and the women themselves, to consider these benefits and risks, so that they can make informed decisions about participation.
• When pregnancy spells the end of a career, Pearce L, The Age (6 July 2015). Many sportswomen's career prospects disappear when they become pregnant. This news item presents the stories of several success Australian sportswomen and how they have managed their sporting career and personal commitments.

• Megan Shutt on her IVF Journey and talking about fertility in women's sport [audio; 25mins], The Scoop Cricket Podcast, (17 March 2021). Ahead of Australia's tour of New Zealand, star bowler Megan Schutt joined hosts Laura Jolly and Emily Collin from hotel quarantine to explain the process of reciprocal IVF which she has recently embarked on with her wife Jess, and why more conversations around fertility and conception are cropping up amongst elite female athletes.
• Caring for the Pregnant Athlete with Dr. Ellen Casey. Episode #452 [audio; 30:05 mins], BMJ Talk Medicine, SoundCloud, (November 2020). Serenna Williams, Alysson Felix, Kerry Walsh Jennings, Lisa Leslie. Mothers and champions. In this AMSSM Sportsmedcast sports medicine specialist Dr. Rathna Nuti hosts Dr. Ellen Casey, @EllenCaseyMD, Associate Attending Physiatrist in the Department of Physiatry and the Women's Sports Medicine Center at the Hospital for Special Surgery in New York. Dr Casey who works with US Gymnastics, is also an Associate Professor of Clinical Rehabilitation Medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College.

Australian guidelines for sport and physical activity

• AIS High Performance Pregnancy Guidelines, Australian Institute of Sport, (October 2021). The AIS has developed these guidelines to assist pregnant athletes, athletes planning to become pregnant, and their sports to make safe and informed decisions in relation to HP programs. These guidelines are also designed to inform athletes and their sport of their obligations around matters such as discrimination and inclusion.
• Physical activity and exercise during pregnancy – guidelines, Australian Government - Department of Health, (May 2021). Being active during and after pregnancy is essential for the good health and wellbeing of both you and your baby. You should continue to follow the guidelines for adults, and add pelvic floor exercises. But you might need to modify the exercises you do as your body changes during pregnancy.
• Pregnancy and Exercise, Sports Medicine Australia, (2017). All women without contraindications should be encouraged to participate in aerobic and strength-conditioning exercises as part of a healthy lifestyle during their pregnancy.

Australian sporting organisation parental and pregnancy policies, guidelines, and announcements

• Athlete pregnancy guidelines, Swimming Australia, (accessed 20 March 2023).
• Everything you need to know: NRLW CBA, Alicia Newton, NRL.com, (14 February 2023).
• AFLW Pregnancy and Parental Management Travel Policy, quoted in: Pregnant AFLW players given choice to opt out, Nat Edwards, AFL.com.au, (3 November 2021).
• Pregnancy and participation in motorsport policy, Motorsport Australia, (May 2020).
• Cricket Australia introduces paid maternity leave as part of new parental policy, Brittany Carter, ABC, (10 October 2019).
• Players Association and WNBL introduce Parental and Pregnancy Care Policy, WNBL, (31 October 2018).
• Pregnancy guidelines, Softball Australia, (March 2016).
• Pregnancy Policy, Australian Flying Disc Association, (revised 16 September 2014).
• Athlete and coach (Basketball Australia National Teams) pregnancy and parental management policy, Basketball Australia, (2014)

International examples

• New Maternity, Pregnant Parent, and Adoption Leave Policy for England Women Players, England Rugby, (16 February 2023). The RFU will support the right of the player who wishes to continue to be involved in the team, while ensuring that the safety of the player and the unborn child are considered first. A full risk assessment will be undertaken when a player first advises of pregnancy which will be a significant factor in determining what duties can be safely performed during pregnancy. The policy also provides opportunities for players due to go on maternity leave (26 weeks on full pay), to move into other safe employment within the rugby network, e.g., community coach, until the player goes on maternity leave.
• Pregnancy guidelines, World Netball, (December 2021). These pregnancy guidelines have been developed by WN to provide information and guidance for all those participating in netball at international level (including, in particular, players, umpires, bench officials and team officials).
• Asia-Pacific consensus on physical activity and exercise in pregnancy and the postpartum period, Ryan Lee, Serene Thain, Lay Kok Tan, et al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 7(2), (May 2021). In this paper, we present seven key consensus recommendations on physical activity and exercise in pregnancy and the postpartum period by 18 key members representing 10 countries in Asia-Pacific regions during an international workshop of the Asia. Our objective for these recommendations is to provide guidance on physical activity for pregnant women during the antenatal and postpartum period and encourage healthy lifestyles to achieve better pregnancy outcomes.
• Pregnancy Guidance, UK Sport, (2021). The aim of this guidance is to advise how to best support an Athlete’s pregnancy fairly and appropriately, providing recommendations to support an Athlete during their pregnancy, and for when they return to training and competition post-childbirth. Pregnancy and post-childbirth can be physically and mentally challenging for a mother and it’s essential that resources and guidance are available to the SGB and the Athlete to best support them and their partner.
  • Pregnancy Guidance for Athletes
  • Pregnancy Guidance for Sports
• Pregnant and Parenting Student-athletes, NCAA, (2021). This web site provides resources and model best practices for student-athletes who become pregnant and/or are parents and the institutions where they study and compete.
• FIFA steps up protection of female players and football coaches, FIFA, (19 November 2020). The FIFA Football Stakeholders Committee (FSC) has backed two sets of landmark reforms to strengthen the protection of female players, as well as football coaches. The proposed new rules include a number of key measures: Mandatory maternity leave of at least 14 weeks, at a minimum of two thirds of the player’s contracted salary. On their return to work, clubs must reintegrate female players and provide adequate medical and physical support. No female player should ever suffer a disadvantage as a result of becoming pregnant, thus securing greater employment protection for women in football. The FSC also approved new rules to better protect the position of football coaches.
• 2019 WTA Rule Changes: WTA introduces special seeding, shot clock, Women's Tennis Association (WTA), (17 December 2018). The 2019 WTA Rulebook will introduce a new special seeding rule for players returning from maternity leave, a modernized attire rule, and the rollout of a 25-second shot clock. WTA Insider recaps the notable rulebook changes.
• 2019 Canadian guideline for physical activity throughout pregnancy, Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, (October 2018). New evidence-based guideline outlines the right amount of physical activity women should get throughout pregnancy to promote maternal, fetal, and neonatal health. Physical activity is now seen as a critical part of a healthy pregnancy. Following the guideline can reduce the risk of pregnancy-related illnesses such as depression by at least 25%, and the risk of developing gestational diabetes, high blood pressure and preeclampsia by 40%. Unless contraindicated pregnant women should accumulate at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity each week over a minimum of three days per week; however, being active in a variety of ways every day is encouraged.

• Female Performance and Health Initiative (FPHI), Australian Institute of Sport, (accessed 20 March 2023). The FPHI was established in October 2019, to improve female athlete specific knowledge and systems of support. The initiative will benefit Australian athletes, coaches, parents, sporting organisations and support staff in the sport sector and will raise awareness and understanding to key female athlete performance and health considerations, including but not limited to: the menstrual cycle and associated dysfunction including endometriosis and Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS); Medical conditions impacting female athletes; Pelvic floor health and incontinence; Breast health; Pregnancy and return to sport.
• The Mum-Alete Project, Australian Institute of Sport, (accessed 20 March 2023). This study is being conducted by AIS Medicine in collaboration with the Female Health Performance Initiative, to enhance our understanding of high-performance athletes’ sport experiences during and post-pregnancy.

• Evidence-based physical activity guidelines for pregnant women, Brown WJ, Hayman M, Haakstad LAH, Mielke GI et al., Report for the Australian Government Department of Health, (March 2020). As part of the suite of national physical activity and sedentary behaviour guidelines for Australians, the Australian Government, in 2018, commissioned a review and synthesis of the evidence to inform the development of practical and safe physical activity guidelines for pregnant Australian women (“the guidelines”). A five-stage approach, which involved critical ‘umbrella’ reviews of the scientific evidence, and adaptation of recommendations included in recently published guidelines and position statements, was used to develop the Guidelines. The proposed Guidelines and Supporting Information are presented on pages 9-14 of this report.
• Physical activity during pregnancy 2011–12, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, (2 May 2019). Currently, little is known about how much, and what types of, physical activity pregnant women undertake in Australia. This short report investigates the types and amount of physical activity undertaken by women during pregnancy, with comparisons made between pregnant and non-pregnant women of the same age, and against Australia’s Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines for adults. The report found that only one third of pregnant women met the Australian physical activity guideline of at least 150 minutes per week of moderate to vigorous activity [compared to around 50% in the general female population as reported in other AIHW reports].

• The “Mother Load” and Return to Sport: A Case Report of Returning to Professional Netball Following Cesarean Section, Diggles A, International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, Volume 18(1), pp.228-239, (February 2023). A 27-year-old primiparous Caucasian professional netballer presented at four weeks post- caesarean section (CS) for RTS screening and assessment of pelvic floor muscle (PFM) function. Measures were collected at four weeks, eight weeks, and six months post-partum. The post-partum athlete demonstrated alterations in pelvic floor muscle function, reduced lower limb power and psychological readiness. A functionally staged dynamic and sport specific pelvic floor muscle training program was implemented and adapted to the patient for her early post-partum timeline. Rehabilitation strategies were effective in achieving the primary outcome of RTS at 16 weeks post-partum with no adverse events reported at 6 months follow-up.
• Effect of Pregnancy in 42 Elite to World-Class Runners on Training and Performance Outcomes, Darroch, Francine, Schneeberg, Amy, Brodie, Ryan, et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 55(1), pp.93-100, (January 2023). Forty-two elite (>50% competed at the World Championships/Olympic) middle-/long-distance runners’ training before, during, and after pregnancy (quality/quantity/type) data (retrospective questionnaire) and competition data (published online) were collected. Running volume decreased significantly (P < 0.01) from the first trimester (63 ± 34 km·wk−1) to the third trimester (30 ± 30 km·wk−1). Participants returned to activity/exercise at ~6 wk postpartum and to 80% of pre-pregnancy training volumes by 3 months. Participants who intended to return to equivalent performance levels post-pregnancy, there was no statistical decrease in performance in the 1 to 3 yr post-pregnancy compared with pre-pregnancy, and ~56% improved performances post-pregnancy. Taken together, this article provides much needed insights into current training practices and performance of elite pregnant runners, which should help to inform future training guidelines as well as sport policy and sponsor expectations around return to training timelines and performance.
• Public health guidelines for physical activity during pregnancy from around the world: a scoping review, Hayman M, Brown WJ, Brinson A, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, (5 January 2023). Our search located 30 eligible guidelines, published in 11 different languages. There is remarkable concordance in the advice offered. For women with uncomplicated pregnancy, guidelines recommend: 150–300 min/week of moderate intensity aerobic activity; pelvic floor and muscle strengthening exercises; modification of some exercises (eg, supine position); and provide lists of warning signs to cease activity (eg, persistent dizziness, vaginal bleeding) and activities that should be avoided (eg, if high risk of falling/collision). Few guidelines offer specific advice for highly active women (eg, athletes), or trimester-specific or culturally specific considerations.
• Does maternity during sports career jeopardize future athletic success in elite marathon runners? Nicolas Forstmann, Alice Meignié, Quentin De Larochelambert, et al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 23(6), pp.896-903, (2023). This study aims to investigate the impact of maternity among elite marathoners on their overall performance progression. For each runner listed in the top 150 female marathoners, who had experienced a mid-career maternity, performance development was reconstituted throughout the career. Among this sample, 37 runners had at least 1 child during her career. Among them, 14 had 2 children. Eleven runners (29.72%) made their personal best performance before Mat, which occurred at an average age of 28.40 ± 4.00 years. Twenty-six runners (70.28%) establish their best performances after Mat, at an average age of 32.20 ± 4.28. The age-performance relationship model explains 92% of the performance variability during the career’s progression. When age is considered, maternity does not have significant impact on performance development. World’s most competitive marathoners can still perform at their best level after pregnancy. The ability to return and surpass previous performance level is influenced by the age at which pregnancy occurs, relative to the age of peak performance during career development.
• We’re not Superhuman, We’re Human: A Qualitative Description of Elite Athletes’ Experiences of Return to Sport After Childbirth, Margie Davenport, Lauren Ray, Autumn Nesdoly, et al., Sports Medicine, Volume 53, pp.269-279, (2023). A growing number of athletes return to elite sport following childbirth. Yet, they face significant barriers to do so safely and successfully. The experiences of elite athletes returning to sport following delivery are necessary to support evidence-informed policy. Eighteen elite athletes, primarily from North America, who had returned to sport following childbirth in the last 5 years were interviewed. The findings of this study are represented by one overarching theme: Need for More Time, and five main themes: (a) Training “New Bodies” Postpartum, (b) Injuries and Safe Return to Sport, (c) Breastfeeding While Training, (d) Critical Supports for Return to Sport, (e) Navigating Motherhood and Sport. The athletes identified the urgent need to develop best-practice policies and funding to support return to sport, as well as develop evidence-based return-to-sport protocols to support a safe and injury-free return.
• Australian guidelines for physical activity in pregnancy and postpartum, Wendy Brown, Melanie Hayman, Lene Haakstad, et al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 25(6), pp.511-519, (June 2022). Our evidence review found that physical activity/exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period is safe, has health benefits for the woman and her unborn child, and may reduce the risks of some pregnancy related complications. Four specific guidelines were developed. These encourage all women without pregnancy complications to: (1) meet the Australian Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines for Adults before, during and after pregnancy; (2) modify activities to accommodate the physical changes that occur as pregnancy progresses; (3) do pelvic floor exercises during and after pregnancy; and (4) take an active role in shared decision-making about their physical activity/exercise during and after pregnancy. The review also identified warning signs and contraindications for physical activity/exercise during pregnancy.
• Pregnancy and motherhood in elite sport: The longitudinal experiences of two elite athletes, Kelly Massey, Amy Whitehead, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 60, (May 2022). This study is the first to provide longitudinal insights into the experiences of both para and non-para elite athlete mothers during the initial stages of motherhood. Findings highlight the individual nature of such an experience and illuminate some of the negotiations of the personal, athlete, and mother identity that an athlete mother may experience.
• Pushing for change: a qualitative study of the experiences of elite athletes during pregnancy, Davenport MH, Nesdoly A, Ray L, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 56(8), pp.452-457, (March 2022). The findings of this study are represented by one overarching message: mother versus athlete, and five main themes: (1) pregnancy planning and fertility, (2) pregnancy disclosure and discrimination, (3) training pregnant athletic bodies, (4) safety concerns, and (5) supportive network and equitable funding. In-depth stories shared by participants highlight the many significant decisions athletes must make as they navigate pregnancy alongside elite sport participation. The shared experiences of pregnant athletes highlight clear challenges that should be considered in the development of sport policy and practices that are inclusive and supportive of female athletes.
• Effects of Regular Exercise During Pregnancy on Early Childhood Neurodevelopment: The Physical Activity for Mothers Enrolled in Longitudinal Analysis Randomized Controlled Trial, Otávio Amaral de Andrade Leão; , Marlos Rodrigues Domingues; , Andréa Dâmaso Bertoldi; et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 19(3), 203-210, (February 2022). Findings indicate that exercise during pregnancy results in a relatively small, but positive, effect on language development at 2 years and cognitive development at 4 years. Despite the lack of effect on other domains of neurodevelopment, exercise during pregnancy did not cause any harm or have any negative effects on child neurodevelopment. Therefore, due to the benefits for maternal and child health, interventions to increase participation in physical activity and exercise during pregnancy should be recommended.
• Reframing return-to-sport postpartum: the 6 Rs framework, Donnelly GM, Moore IS, Brockwell E, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 56(5), pp.244-245, (February 2022). In the context of the perinatal athlete, we argue that it is crucial that specialist pelvic health physiotherapists, midwives and obstetric and gynaecological consultants are included in the multidisciplinary team supporting their return-to-sport. In this editorial we will outline considerations that are necessary for supporting athletes during and after pregnancy. In doing so we aim to provide a framework to guide multidisciplinary teams managing perinatal athletes and their return-to-sport postpartum.
• The Incompatibility of Motherhood and Professional Women's Football in England, Alex Culvin, Ali Bowes, Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 3, (September 2021). This article offers an examination of the gender-specific needs of women as professional footballers, focusing specifically on the distinctive aspect of maternity policy. Sportswomen often feel compelled to make the difficult decision between motherhood and an athletic career. Contracts have become an essential component of the work-life of professional women footballers. However, these contracts pose questions regarding organisational intentions and motivations. This study draws on 30 semi-structured interviews with professional women footballers in England. Our key considerations include contracts, employment, motherhood, and athletes' bodies. This examination will develop our understanding of the complexities associated with professional football as a career choice for women.
• Elite Athletes and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Jenna Wowdzia, Tara-Leigh McHugh, Jane Thornton, et al., Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, Volume 53(3), pp.534-542, (2021). The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate fetal and maternal pregnancy outcomes of elite athletes who had participated in competitive sport immediately before conception. There is “low” certainty of evidence that elite athletes have reduced odds of experiencing pregnancy-related low back pain and “very low”certainty of evidence that elite athletes have increased the odds of excessive weight gain compared with active/sedentary controls. More research is needed to provide strong evidence of how elite competitive sport before pregnancy affects maternal and fetal outcomes.
• Considerations for the Postpartum Runner, Kate Mihevc Edwards, Strength and Conditioning Journal, Volume 42(1), pp.45-52, (2020). According to Running USA, today there are over 35 million runners in the United States and greater than half are women. The psychological, physiological and biomechanical differences between male and female runners are well cited however, there is little guidance provided to healthcare providers including running and strength coaches about how to transition runners back to running postpartum. This article can serve as a reference for understanding the unique challenges female runners face postpartum and give clinicians the knowledge to manage the athlete’s expectations and training progression.
• Exercise Benefits and Recommendations for the 6-Week Postpartum Period, Loewen, Brandon, Collum, Connor, Ryan, Greg, Strength and Conditioning Journal, Volume 42(4), pp.12-21, (2020). The postpartum period is the stage after childbirth and is associated with many physical and psychological changes. Exercise has been shown to be beneficial for both the physical and psychological health of a new mother. Previous literature has examined the effect of both aerobic and resistance training in this period; however, there have been no clear guidelines and recommendations provided. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to review the benefits of exercise in the postpartum period, and to provide guidelines and a sample 6-week aerobic and resistance training program after exercise initiation after delivery and medical clearance.
• From Childbirth to the Starting Blocks: Are We Providing the Best Care to Our Postpartum Athletes? Rita Deering, Shefali Christopher, Bryan Heiderscheit, Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, Volume 50(6), pp.281-345, (2020). There is minimal evidence to guide return to exercise after pregnancy and childbirth, and even less information on safe return to competitive sport. The International Olympic Committee has suggested a 3-phase approach to postpartum recovery in athletes. This Viewpoint expands on that 3-phase model and incorporates a multidisciplinary approach to ensure comprehensive care of postpartum athletes to facilitate safe return to sport with optimal health and performance outcomes. Adopting a multidisciplinary approach may also open new research avenues to ameliorate the dearth of knowledge regarding musculoskeletal recovery and facilitate the development of guidelines to inform clinicians and postpartum women about safe return to exercise, particularly, high-intensity or high-impact activities.
• Pregnancy and Postpartum Training: Coaching Considerations, Wise, Stephanie, Binkley, Jean, Binkley, Helen, Strength and Conditioning Journal, Volume 42(4), pp.93-104, (2020). Exercise is beneficial for women to continue during pregnancy and the postpartum period. However, many women do not meet the minimum guidelines set forth by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Strength and conditioning coaches and personal trainers working specifically with athletes and nonathletes during childbearing years should continue to encourage their clientele to exercise. Educating them on altering their current exercise program and adapting it as they progress through their pregnancy into the postpartum period is important. General recommendations for exercise and certain modifications may be needed as many physical and physiological adaptations occur within the body during this time.
• ‘Provide clarity and consistency’: the practicalities of following UK national policies and advice for exercise and sport during pregnancy and early motherhood, Eilidh Macrae, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(1), pp.147-161, (2020). This qualitative study employed a social-ecological framework to investigate the experiences of new mothers based in the UK and the practicalities of engaging in regular exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Three themes were generated as recommendations to the sector. The first theme was the importance of providing ‘trusted advice’ from reputable sources. The second theme was the need for provision of ‘safe, affordable sport and exercise options’. The final theme was the need for more ‘considered postpartum support’ for exercise, through further childcare options and a range of supportive environments for women to exercise within postpartum.
• Psychological effects of exercise for pregnant women: a systematic review, Lina Anisa Nasution, Irma Darmawati, EurAsian Journal of BioSciences, Volume 14(2), pp.6983-6990, (2020). The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic mapping review of the literature that explored the psychological effect of sport in pregnant women. The search identified quantitative research studies on the psychological effect of exercise for pregnant women. Nine articles were analyzed through data extraction. The types of exercise discussed in this systematic review include supervised exercise sessions, aerobic dance, endurance training, interval stationary cycling and the intervention followed American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) guidelines. Pregnant women who have exercise have improved psychological conditions such as decreased sadness, hopelessness, anxiety and the incidence of antenatal depression. Furthermore, pregnant women also showed an enjoyment to exercise. Exercise may have a positive effect on psychological state and reduce risk of psychological distress for pregnant women.
• Spotlight on the fetus: how physical activity during pregnancy influences fetal health: a narrative review, Ilena Bauer, Julia Hartkopf, Stephanie Kullmann, et al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 6(1), (2020). In the current review, we aimed to comprehensively assess the evidence of beneficial and harmful effects of maternal PA, including high-performance sports, on fetal development. The different mental and body-based relaxation techniques presented here are frequently performed during pregnancy. We found a considerable number of studies addressing these issues. In general, neither low key, moderate maternal PA nor relaxation techniques were observed to have a harmful effect on the developing child. However, we identified some forms of PA which could have at least a transient unfavourable effect. Notably, the literature currently available does not provide enough evidence to enable us to make a general conclusive statement on this subject. This is due to the lack of longitudinal studies on the metabolic and cognitive effects of regular PA during pregnancy and the wide diversity of methods used. In particular, the kind of PA investigated in each study differed from study to study.
• Why can’t I exercise during pregnancy? Time to revisit medical ‘absolute’ and ‘relative’ contraindications: systematic review of evidence of harm and a call to action, Meah VL, Davies GA, Davenport MH, British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 54(23), pp.1395-1404, (2020). We found that the majority of medical conditions listed as contraindications were based on expert opinion; there is minimal empirical evidence to demonstrate harm of exercise and benefit of activity restriction. We identified 11 complications (eg, gestational hypertension, twin pregnancy) previously classified as contraindications where women may in fact benefit from regular prenatal physical activity with or without modifications. However, the evidence suggests that severe cardiorespiratory disease, placental abruption, vasa previa, uncontrolled type 1 diabetes, intrauterine growth restriction, active preterm labour, severe pre-eclampsia and cervical insufficiency are associated with strong potential for maternal/fetal harm and warrant classification as absolute contraindications.
• Elite athletes get pregnant, have healthy babies and return to sport early postpartum, Jorunn Sundgot-Borgen, Christine Sundgot-Borgen, Grethe Myklebust, et al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 5(1), (November 2019). 34 Norwegian elite athletes (33.1 years) and 34 active controls (31.5 years) were asked about training and competitive history, pregnancy-related issues, injuries, body dissatisfaction (BD), drive for thinness (DT), eating disorders (ED) and practical experiences, through a questionnaire and interview. The results showed that both elite athletes and active controls got pregnant easily, delivered healthy babies and decreased training during pregnancy and the first postpartum periods compared with prepregnancy. Most athletes and every third control returned to sport or exercise at week 0–6 postpartum. Athletes reported stress fractures and increased BD and DT, but decreased ED postpartum. However, since relatively few athletes were included these findings need further investigation.
• Benefits of Physical Activity during Pregnancy and Postpartum: An Umbrella Review, Dipietro, Loretta, Evenson, Kelly, Bloodgood, Boony, et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 51(6), pp.1292-1302, (2019). This study aimed to summarize the evidence from the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Scientific Report, including new evidence from an updated search of the effects of physical activity on maternal health during pregnancy and postpartum. The reviewers concluded that the gestational period is an opportunity to promote positive health behaviors that can have both short- and long-term benefits for the mother. Given the low prevalence of physical activity in young women in general, and the high prevalence of obesity and cardio metabolic diseases among the U.S. population, the public health importance of increasing physical activity in women of childbearing age before, during, and after pregnancy is substantial.
• Exercise and pregnancy in recreational and elite athletes: 2016/2017 evidence summary from the IOC expert group meeting, Lausanne. Part 5. Recommendations for health professionals and active women, Bø K, Artal R, Barakat R, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 52(17), pp.1080-1085, (2018). Summarises the recommendations for exercise during pregnancy and after childbirth in recreational exercisers and elite athletes experiencing healthy pregnancies. Part 5 also serves as a background for healthcare personnel to advise women who wish to stay active at a high level.
• Exercise and pregnancy in recreational and elite athletes: 2016/17 evidence summary from the IOC Expert Group Meeting, Lausanne. Part 3—exercise in the postpartum period, Bø K, Artal R, Barakat R, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine , Volume 51(21), pp.1516-1525, (2017). The aims of this paper are to present (1) the findings from a systematic review of the scientific literature on factors related to returning to exercise after childbirth in recreational and elite athletes, and (2) the prevalence, risk factors and evidence for prevention and treatment of common postpartum conditions that may affect sport performance and overall quality of life.
• Exercise and pregnancy in recreational and elite athletes: 2016/17 evidence summary from the IOC expert group meeting, Lausanne. Part 4—Recommendations for future research, Bø K, Artal R, Barakat R, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine , Volume 51(24), pp.1724-1726, (2017). In Part 4, we recommend future research based on Parts 1–3. The systematic reviews, on which the previous Parts were based, revealed many gaps in knowledge relating to strenuous exercise during pregnancy and in the postpartum period, in both regular recreational exercisers and elite athletes. Important research questions are listed below, in relation to the foci of Parts 1–3, under the following headings: exercise during pregnancy, exercise related to birth outcomes and exercise in the postpartum period.
• Exercise and pregnancy in recreational and elite athletes: 2016 evidence summary from the IOC expert group meeting, Lausanne. Part 1—exercise in women planning pregnancy and those who are pregnant, Bo K, Aertal R, Barakat R, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 50(10), pp.571-589, (2016). The IOC assembled an international expert committee to review the literature on physical activity and exercise (1) during pregnancy and (2) after childbirth, using rigorous systematic review and search criteria. Part 1 focuses on the effects of training during pregnancy and on the management of common pregnancy-related symptoms experienced by athletes.
• Exercise and pregnancy in recreational and elite athletes: 2016 evidence summary from the IOC expert group meeting, Lausanne. Part 2—the effect of exercise on the fetus, labour and birth, Bø K, Artal R, Barakat R, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 50(21), pp.1297-1305, (2016). This evidence statement, based on a systematic literature search, examines how strenuous exercise affects the fetus. It also addresses issues relating to birth, such as risk of preterm birth, prolonged labour and mode of delivery, including injuries to the pelvic floor muscles and the perineum.
• Postpartum exercise, Brad Roy, ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal, Volume 18(6), pp.3-4, (2014). There are numerous benefits to being physically active after pregnancy, including a reduction in fat mass, increased lean mass, improved lipid profiles, and enhanced mental outlook and acuity. All women are encouraged to begin exercising as soon as medically appropriate and to remain physically active throughout their lifetimes.

• NETBALLHer, England Netball, (accessed 16 June 2023). Working with female health experts, The Well HQ, England Netball is aiming to re-write the rules and reimagine best practice around the female body’s life stages. NETBALL Her provides information on key topics such as Pelvic Health; Menopause; the Menstrual Cycle; Bras & Kit; Nutrition; Pre & Post Natal; Injury; and Puberty. More resources, myth busting articles, relatable videos, and Her Latest Stories, all rooted in netball, at every level of the game are added regularly.
• Factsheet: Are you an athlete considering pregnancy, Australian Institute of Sport, (2021). Provide general advice on medical and dental check-ups, nutrition and weight, supplements, pelvic floor exercises, mental health, travel, menstrual cycle, your environment, exercise considerations, and avoiding alcohol, smoking, and illicit drugs.
• Factsheet: Are you an athlete who is currently pregnant, Australian Institute of Sport, (2021). Provides general advice on medical check-ups, exercise, nutrition and weight gain, sleep, bra support, pelvic floor, travel, and mental health.
• Breastfeeding as an athlete, Australian Institute of Sport, (accessed 20 March 2023). Your milk supply, your baby's growth and development and the composition of your breastmilk is unlikely to be affected by your training.
• Pregnancy and Participation, Play by the Rules, (accessed 20 March 2023). This interactive scenario will help you learn about: The rights and responsibilities of players, coaches and administrators in relation to pregnancy and sport; Key information relating to pregnancy and sport; General guidelines for supporting pregnant women who want to participate in sport; Steps for managing the risks associated with pregnancy.

• Move over menstrual cycle: Ovulation monitoring is the new gold standard to monitor REDs in female athletes, Jessalyn O’Donnell, SIRCuit, (23 January 2023). Low energy availability (LEA) arises when there is not enough energy (calories) consumed to support critical body functions as well as extra physical activity, such as training. Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) is a result of longstanding LEA and is associated with a variety of negative health and performance outcomes. Until recently, menstrual cycle patterns were considered a key indicator of energy availability in female athletes. Menstrual cycles remain important, but ovulation is the key marker of energy availability. This SIRCuit article summarizes the relationship between LEA, REDs and ovulation, as well as answers questions about whether ovulation monitoring is right for you.
• Patience Through Puberty, Molly Huddl, Sara Slattery, How she did it book, (10 March 2022). This section will provide some thought-provoking facts on the abysmal performance attrition and participation rates of athletes, and particularly female athletes, in running events during the transition from high-school/junior to senior elite ranks. However, it will also raise the notion that the physiology behind female development through adolescence is different to that of male athletes and that patience in long-term athlete development is often over-looked and ignored in the pursuit of short-term performance outcomes. Finally, this section will focus on how creating a positive performance environment, with proactive awareness and education on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport is a requirement to improve female adolescent sport culture, and ultimately, female athlete retention rates and love of sport for life.
• The Whoop Strap and Oura Ring Are Measuring the Impact of Menstruation and Pregnancy on Athletes as Women's Research and Tech Finally Rise, Joe Lemire, Sports Business Journal, (17 November 2021). Kristen Holmes played and coached field hockey at the highest level for more than two decades, earning three All-America selections at Iowa and later coaching Princeton to a national championship. Never, she says, did the subject of menstrual cycles arise in the context of training. Researchers aren’t asking those questions either, with one estimate indicating that women account for only 3% of participants in sport science analysis.
• Sport science body to track female athletes’ hormonal changes linked to menstruation, Linda Geddes, The Guardian, (16 July 2021). The English Institute of Sport (EIS) is seeking to level the playing field through the rollout of regular saliva testing to track the rise and fall of two key drivers of these monthly changes: oestrogen and progesterone. Because of the hormones involved, the menstrual cycle underpins many aspects of a woman’s health, from her bone strength to her fertility, immune system and mental functioning. “If they don’t have a healthy menstrual cycle, it means for whatever reason, something’s not quite right,” said Dr Richard Burden, co-lead for female health at the EIS. Some women also experience symptoms related to their menstrual cycle such as low energy, pain or bloating. According to one recent study of female rugby players, 93% of them reported cycle-related symptoms, and 67% thought these affected their athletic performance.
• Does injury incidence really change across the menstrual cycle? Highlighting a recent key study, Dr Emma Jane Lunan, BJSM blog, (5 April 2021). Part of the BJSM Knowledge translation series. This is a plain language translation of a non-BJSM article. This study aimed to assess whether the menstrual cycle phase and extended cycle length had an influence on the incidence of injuries in international footballers. This study adds further weight to the premise that monitoring athlete menstrual cycles may be useful to identify points within the cycle that athletes are at increased risk of injuries. In particular extended menstrual cycles are easily identified and it may be worthwhile modifying training during this period.
• Tokyo Perceptions Study: "That time of the month"...for the biggest event of your career, Australian Institute of Sport, (2021?). Survey was undertaken to understand what Australian elite female athletes think about the effect of their menstrual cycle on performance, and why? Two thirds of athletes reported that their menstrual cycle affects their performance. Athletes who experience three or more menstrual symptons were twice as likely to report feeling affected. Para-athletes and athletes in aesthetic sports were more affected than other athletes. Two thirds of athletes also called for 'more focus', including education, on the menstrual cycle and female performance in sport.
• How periods and the pill affect athletic performance, Dan Gordon, The Conversation, (22 September 2020). The menstrual cycle, the pill and their potential impact on sporting performance have long been considered a taboo subject. Yet for most females who undertake any form of exercise or high-performance sport, there are a range of challenges that can affect their athletic performance, including from their menstrual cycle and their use of contraceptive pills. But a historic lack of scientific research in these areas still means we have very limited knowledge of the specific effect that both have on athletic performance. However, what research we do have on these subjects shows both can have an impact on athletic performance – which may be especially important for elite athletes.
• Australian women's cricket team tracks players' periods in focus on women's health and fertility, Amanda Shalala, ABC News, (10 October 2020). The aim is to see whether players are regular, and what symptoms they might have. "If we can start to collect those types of things, hopefully down the track, we can start to look at those other facets of the menstrual cycle and how they can actually start to affect performance as well," Dr Inge says.
• Why periods must no longer be a taboo subject in sport, Louise Lawless, The Irish Times, (25 July 2019). Athletes who incorporate menstrual cycle into preparation are reaping the benefits.
• The menstrual cycle and female athletic performance, Johanna Ihalainen, Mid Sweden University, (2019). In a recent study, more than half of elite female athletes reported that hormonal fluctuations during their menstrual cycle negatively affected their exercise training and performance capacity.
• Sport Science on Women, Women in Sport Science. Mujika, Iñigo; Taipale, Ritva S., International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, Volume 14(8), pp.1013-1-14, (2019). This editorial article discusses issues on women in sport science and sex differences in responses and adaptations to training. Some interesting comments/links to research in the text include:
  • Unique to women is the ability to legally and ethically alter their hormonal profile and menstrual cycle by using exogenous hormones (hormonal contraceptives).
  • Approximately 42% of exercising women believe that their menstrual cycle has a negative impact on exercise training and performance.
  • Approximately 50% of elite athletes are currently using hormonal contraceptives, and up to 70% have used them. Unfortunately, we still do not fully understand the effects of the menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptives on training and performance.
  • Monitoring and reporting of menstrual-cycle phase takes a little extra time and effort but could explain “interesting” results. More research should test women in different phases of the menstrual cycle to further elucidate the possible phase effects on training responses, adaptations, and performance (instead of just testing in the follicular, or “low-hormone,” phase of the menstrual cycle, when hormonal profile is “most similar” to that of men).
  • When applicable, use of accurate measurements for determination of both ovulation and nonovulatory cycles may also be important (a menstrual bleed does not necessarily indicate ovulation).
  • Users of hormonal contraceptives should be included in research in their own group to further elucidate the possible effects of exogenous hormones on training adaptations and performance, and the type and delivery methods of hormonal contraceptives should be reported.
  • It would also be of benefit for researchers to consider the potential underlying issues that might have been a reason for using hormonal contraceptives (e.g., relative energy deficiency in sport, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis, etc.), as these may have influenced endogenous hormone profiles prior to taking hormonal contraceptives.
• Menstruation is not a taboo in women’s sport, period, Kirsty Elliott-Sale, The Conversation, (12 April 2018). Menstruation is often called the “last great taboo” in women’s sport. But periods are the media’s taboo, not sportswomen’s. Our new research showed that elite athletes are not afraid to talk about their menstrual cycle and how it affects them. We also found that half of the 430 athletes we interviewed are using some kind of hormonal contraceptive, which affected their menstrual cycle.
• Female athletes, hormonal contraception, and bone health [infographic], Emily Kraus, Clinical Assistant Professor, Standford Children's Orthopedic and Sports Medicine, Twitter, (accessed 23 March 2023).

• Female Performance and Health Initiative (FPHI), Australian Institute of Sport, (accessed 21 March 2023). The FPHI was established in October 2019, to improve female athlete specific knowledge and systems of support. The initiative will benefit Australian athletes, coaches, parents, sporting organisations and support staff in the sport sector and will raise awareness and understanding to key female athlete performance and health considerations, including but not limited to: 
  • Hormonal contraception: What are the options?
  • Understanding your menstrual cycle: What's normal, what's not?
  • Polycystic ovary syndrome.
  • Endometriosis.
  • Education modules. The AIS has partnered with specialist medical practitioners, high performance athletes and high performance coaches to design a suite of online learning modules for athletes, parents, coaches and medical practitioners. These modules aim to increase your knowledge about the menstrual cycle; menstrual abnormalities; puberty; hormonal contraception; bone, pelvic and breast health, body image; low energy availability and nutrition; and considerations for coaches and medical practitioners working with female athletes.
• “I’m an Athlete. Period.” Active Inclusion, South Australian Office for Recreation, Sport and Racing, Taboo Period Products, (2023). Project has several videos and ambassadors aiming to:
  • Removing the stigma and/or taboo nature around menstruation
  • Improving awareness of the barriers related to menstruation for girls and young women involved in sport
  • Identifying champions to start conversations in clubs/sports and how barriers can be addressed
  • Empowering champions to lead conversations and promote change
  • Raise awareness and reduce aversion to the discussion of periods
  • Reduce barriers that impact female participation in sport
• Periods, contraceptives and performance: The need for more education, University of Southern Queensland, (March 2023). The University of Southern Queensland (UniSQ) has been chosen by the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) to lead a landmark research project to address major knowledge gaps among female athletes and those that support them about how the menstrual cycle can impact training and performance. “By the end of this project, we will have an evidence-based resource that will serve as a starting point for sporting organisations to utilise and improve upon the quality of any female athlete health education delivered.”

• Puberty & Sport: An Invisible Stage, Women in Sport, (2018). Puberty is a confusing time of significant physical, emotional and social change for girls, which they feel unprepared to deal with due to a lack of education.
  During this transition to adulthood, girls can form negative attitudes towards sport due to parents being less engaged, increased studying and pressure to perform well at school, a desire for new, more mature experiences and wanting to be accepted and acceptable to peers.

• Current evidence shows no influence of women's menstrual cycle phase on acute strength performance or adaptations to resistance exercise training, Lauren Colenso-Semple, Alysha D'Souza, Kirsty Elliott-Sale, et al., Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, Volume 5, (March 2023). the purpose of this umbrella review was to examine and critically evaluate the evidence from meta-analyses and systematic reviews on the influence of menstrual cycle phase on acute performance and chronic adaptations to resistance exercise training (RET). We observed highly variable findings among the published reviews on the ostensible effects of female sex hormones on relevant RET-induced outcomes, including strength, exercise performance, and hypertrophy. We highlight the importance of comprehensive menstrual cycle verification methods, as we noted a pattern of poor and inconsistent methodological practices in the literature. In our opinion, it is premature to conclude that short-term fluctuations in reproductive hormones appreciably influence acute exercise performance or longer-term strength or hypertrophic adaptations to RET.
• Go with the flow – menstrual health experiences of athletes and coaches in Scottish swimming, Sarah Zipp, Molly Hyde, Sport in Society, (24 March 2023). In collaboration with Scottish Swimming, our study included semi-structured interviews with 13 coaches and 6 athletes. Both coaches and athletes felt they lacked knowledge and expressed a strong desire for menstrual health education in sport. Notably, most coaches were not confident that their knowledge would enable them to offer practical advice. Athletes indicated an openness about discussing the menstrual cycle, especially as they got older. We conclude that menstrual health education should be formally incorporated into coaching education, which will improve athlete experience.
• The impact and experienced barriers menstruation present to football participation in amateur female footballers, Cecile Pinel, Ritan Mehta, Katrine Okholm Kryger, Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 40(17), pp.1950-1963, (September 2022). This study (1) assessed the impact different stages of the menstrual cycle has on experienced football performance and exercise ability (2) identified the experienced barriers to football participation menstruation presents in amateur women footballers. An online survey was used. The inclusion criteria were non-professional, women currently experiencing regular menstrual cycles, ≥18 years, ≥60 min football/week in the UK. Most of the respondents were aged between 18–25 (89%), Caucasian (83%) and competing in Universities Leagues (69%). Menstruation was reported to “never” limit football playing in 17%, “sometimes” in 47%, “rarely” in 25% and “always” in 10% of respondents. The majority (73%) reported one or more barriers menstruation present to football participation. Confidence and aerobic capacity/endurance were identified to be the aspects most negatively impacted during the pre-menstrual and menstrual stages. Confidence is likely to be negatively impacted due to the barriers identified. Thus, recommendations on how to reduce these through education of players and involved staff, at the club and the FA level have been made.
• The impact of menstruation on participation in adventurous activities, Heather Prince, Erin Annison, Sport, Education and Society, (4 April 2022). Menstruation is a ‘taboo’ subject in many cultures and its effect on women’s participation in sport and physical culture in western societies is under-researched. This study examines the effect of menstruation and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) on habitual participants in adventurous activities through the voices of women. In a survey to explore women’s lived experiences (n = 100), 89% of respondents noted that their participation is affected by menstruation/PMS. The dominant constraints to participation in adventurous activities were related to practical challenges of hygiene and waste disposal for managing menstruation. Rich qualitative data provide evidence for the negative and emotional responses of women to ‘missing out’ on adventurous activities with the majority of concerns about their performance in socio-cultural contexts related to personal anxieties. Some women commented on their belief in being a role model in professional work encouraging open discussion around menstruation and enabling more women and girls to take part in adventurous activities. Key practical recommendations are suggested in respect of provision of toilet facilities where possible and biodegradable sanitary products. Raised awareness amongst leaders and educators, particularly men is important so that they might identify strategies to manage the constraints facing women and girls and enable more inclusivity and greater participation in adventurous activities.
• Physical Activity, Menstrual History, and Bone Microarchitecture in Female Athletes with Multiple Bone Stress Injuries, Rudolph, Sara, Caksa, Signe, Gehman, Sarah, et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 53(10), pp.2182-2189, (October 2021). To determine differences in health and physical activity history, bone density, microarchitecture, and strength among female athletes with a history of multiple BSI, athletes with ≤1 BSI, and nonathletes. Groups did not differ according to age, body mass index, age at menarche, areal bone mineral density, or tibial bone microarchitecture. Women with multiple BSI had a higher prevalence of primary and secondary amenorrhea (P < 0.01) compared with other groups. Total hours of physical activity in middle school were similar across groups; however, women with multiple BSI performed more total hours of physical activity in high school (P = 0.05), more hours of uniaxial loading in both middle school and high school (P = 0.004, P = 0.02), and a smaller proportion of multiaxial loading activity compared with other groups. These observations suggest that participation in sports with multiaxial loading and maintaining normal menstrual status during adolescence and young adulthood may reduce the risk of multiple bone stress injuries.
• Injury Incidence Across the Menstrual Cycle in International Footballers, Dan Martin, Kate Timmins, Charlotte Cowie, et al., Frontiers in Spors and Active Living, Volume 3, (March 2021). One hundred fifty-six injuries from 113 players were eligible for analysis. Injury incidence rates per 1,000 person-days were 31.9 in the follicular, 46.8 in the late follicular, and 35.4 in the luteal phase, resulting in injury incidence rate ratios of 1.47 (Late follicular:Follicular), 1.11 (Luteal:Follicular), and 0.76 (Luteal:Late follicular). Injury incident rate ratios showed that muscle and tendon injury rates were 88% greater in the late follicular phase compared to the follicular phase, with muscle rupture/tear/strain/cramps and tendon injuries/ruptures occurring over twice as often during the late follicular phase compared to other phases 20% of injuries were reported as occurring when athletes were “overdue” menses.
• Prevalence and frequency of menstrual cycle symptoms are associated with availability to train and compete: a study of 6812 exercising women recruited using the Strava exercise app, Georgie Bruinvels, Esther Goldsmith, Richard Blagrove, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 55(8), pp.438-443, (March 2021). The most prevalent menstrual cycle symptoms were mood changes/anxiety (90.6%), tiredness/fatigue (86.2%), stomach cramps (84.2%) and breast pain/tenderness (83.1%). After controlling for body mass index, training volume and age, the MSi was associated with a greater likelihood of missing or changing training (OR=1.09 (CI 1.08 to 1.10); p≤0.05), missing a sporting event/competition (OR=1.07 (CI 1.06 to 1.08); p≤0.05), absenteeism from work/academia (OR=1.08 (CI 1.07 to 1.09); p≤0.05) and use of pain medication (OR=1.09 (CI 1.08 to 1.09); p≤0.05). Menstrual cycle symptoms are very common in exercising women, and women report that these symptoms compromise their exercise participation and work capacity. The MSi needs to be formally validated (psychometrics); at present, it provides an easy way to quantify the frequency of menstrual cycle symptoms.
• Bidirectional Interactions between the Menstrual Cycle, Exercise Training, and Macronutrient Intake in Women: A Review, Sílvia Rocha-Rodrigues, Mónica Sousa, Patrícia Lourenço Reis, et.al., Nutrients, Volume 13(2), (2021). Women have a number of specificities that differentiate them from men. In particular, the role of sex steroid hormones and the menstrual cycle (MC) significantly impact women’s physiology. The literature has shown nonlinear relationships between MC, exercise, and nutritional intake. Notably, these relationships are bidirectional and less straightforward than one would suppose. For example, the theoretical implications of the MC’s phases on exercise performance do not always translate into relevant practical effects. There is often a disconnect between internal measures (e.g., levels of hormone concentrations) and external performance. Furthermore, it is not entirely clear how nutritional intake varies across the MC’s phases and whether these variations impact on exercise performance. Therefore, a thorough review of the existing knowledge could help in framing these complex relationships and potentially contribute to the optimization of exercise prescription and nutritional intake according to the naturally occurring phases of the MC. Throughout this review, an emerging trend is the lack of generalizability and the need to individualize interventions, since the consequences of the MC’s phases and their relationships with exercise and nutritional intake seem to vary greatly from person to person. In this sense, average data are probably not relevant and could potentially be misleading.
• Elite female athletes' experiences and perceptions of the menstrual cycle on training and sport performance, Brown N; Knight CJ; Forrest Née Whyte LJ, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 31(1), pp.52-69, (2021). Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 elite female athletes (25.5 ± 4.7 years) from multiple sports. Results revealed athletes' experiencing a natural menstrual cycle reported physical symptoms alongside mood disturbances and reduced motivation to train. The decision to actively control the menstrual cycle was often triggered by a desire to reduce the effect on competition, to lessen anxieties about making required weight or reduce distraction to manage during competition. Athletes indicated an openness to talk about the menstrual cycle to other females, however, there was variation in the comfort athletes experienced regarding talking to male coaches. Overall, the findings highlight the need to educate elite athletes and coaches on the menstrual cycle, considering it in the same light as other physiological functions in sport to improve health, well-being, and performance. Furthermore, providing education on how to construct positive conversations, equipping individuals with the correct terminology, and confidence to talk about the menstrual cycle will reduce some reservations identified through improved knowledge and understanding.
• What male coaches want to know about the menstrual cycle in women’s team sports: Performance, health, and communication, Anthea Clarke, Andrew Govus, Alex Donaldson, International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, Volume 16(3), (January 2021). 18 male coaches of Australian female elite football-codes brainstormed what they wanted to know about the menstrual cycle to work more effectively with female athletes. Ideas were sorted into groups of similar ideas and rated for importance and influence. Thirty-eight unique statements emerged from the brainstorming. These were organised into five clusters/topics following multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis: 1) How does training need to be managed; 2) How is physical performance impacted; 3) What are the medical and dietary considerations; 4) When and how should we communicate with athletes; and 5) How are athletes affected psychologically and emotionally. These findings highlight the need for a comprehensive education framework to improve the knowledge of and practices related to the menstrual cycle. This education should 1) facilitate better recognition and referral of female athletes regarding menstrual cycle dysfunction and related health concerns; 2) encourage collaboration between athletes, coaches, and medical and dietary professionals; and 3) promote effective communication between athletes and coaches about the menstrual cycle.
• How the menstrual cycle and menstruation affect sporting performance: experiences and perceptions of elite female rugby players, Findlay RJ, Macrae EHR, Whyte IY, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 54(18), pp.1108-1113, (September 2020). 15 international female rugby players participated in individual semi-structured interviews (age: 24.5±6.2 years). Almost all athletes (93%) reported menstrual cycle-related symptoms. Thirty-three per cent perceived heavy menstrual bleeding and 67% considered these symptoms impaired their performances. Two-thirds of athletes self-medicated to alleviate symptoms. The four general dimensions were: (1) symptoms: physiological and psychological menstrual cycle-related symptoms such as dysmenorrhoea, flooding, reduced energy levels, worry, distraction, fluctuating emotions and reduced motivation; (2) impact: perceived impact of menstruation on different aspects of daily lives and performance including negative and neutral responses; (3) resolution: the methods/approaches in dealing with menstruation-related concerns including accepting, or adapting and managing symptoms with self-medication or expert treatment; (4) support: available support and comfortability in discussing menstrual cycle-related issues. This study highlights individual responses to menstrual ‘issues’ and emphasises the need for clinicians and support staff to undertake menstrual cycle profiling, monitoring and continue to develop awareness, openness, knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle.
• Practice does not make perfect: A brief view of athletes' knowledge on the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives, Larsen B; Morris K; Quinn K; et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 23(8), pp.690-694, (August 2020). Australian female athletes (n=189) representing their state and/or country in their respective sport completed a questionnaire comprising questions relating to the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives. A knowledge 'score' was calculated by allocating one point for each correct answer; the highest knowledge score that could be achieved was 14. Almost half (47.1 %) of the athletes surveyed were currently using hormonal contraception, the majority (75.3 %) of which used an oral contraceptive pill. Nevertheless, the mean knowledge score achieved by athletes on the questionnaire was 5.03±3.06, with only 8.5 % of athletes achieving a knowledge score of 10 or above. Our findings indicate that knowledge surrounding the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives was low in most elite athletes. Further education is warranted to enable athletes to make informed decisions regarding hormonal contraception, and any educational interventions should be implemented across all athlete groups.
• Inflammation and Oral Contraceptive Use in Female Athletes Before the Rio Olympic Games, Larsen B; Cox A; Colbey C; et.al., Frontiers in Physiology, (25 May 2020). This study investigated the association between synthetic ovarian hormone use [i.e., the oral contraceptive (OC) pill] and basal C-reactive protein (CRP), peripheral blood immune cell subsets, and circulating pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine concentrations in elite female athletes. Elite female athletes (n = 53) selected in Rio Summer Olympic squads participated in this study; 25 were taking an OC (AthletesOC) and 28 were naturally hormonally cycling (AthletesNC). Female Olympians had substantially higher CRP concentrations, a marker of inflammation and tissue damage, before the Rio Olympic Games if they used an OC. Future research should examine the potential consequences for athlete performance/recovery so that, if necessary, practitioners can implement prevention programs.
• Australian female athlete perceptions of the challenges associated with training and competing when menstrual symptoms are present. Armour, Mike; Parry, Kelly A; Steel, Kylie; et.al., International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, Volume 15(3), pp.316- , (2020). This study aimed to investigate the strategies used by athletes to manage menstrual symptoms and the role coaches played in this process. One hundred and twenty-four valid responses from Australian athletes 16–45, with a mean age of 29 years, were received. Period pain (82%) and pre-menstrual symptoms (83%) were commonly reported and contributed to fatigue and to perceived reductions in performance during or just prior to the period (50.0% in training, 58.7% on 'game day'). Contraceptive use was reported by 42% of athletes. Those reporting heavy menstrual bleeding (29.7%) were more likely to report increased fatigue. Over three-quarters of athletes reported neither they nor their coaches altered training due to the menstrual cycle. Most athletes (76%) did not discuss menstruation with their coaches. Given the perceived negative impact on performance and potential risks with contraceptive usage during adolescence, coaches, trainers and athletes need to have a more open dialogue around the menstrual cycle.
• Changes in Self-Reported Physical Fitness, Performance, and Side Effects Across the Phases of the Menstrual Cycle Among Competitive Endurance Athletes, Solli, Guro S.; Sandbakk, Silvana B.; et.al., International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, Volume 15(9), pp.1324-1333, (2020). To investigate changes in self-reported physical fitness, performance, and side effects across the menstrual cycle (MC) phases among competitive endurance athletes and to describe their knowledge and communication with coaches about the MC. The responses of 140 participants (older than 18 y) competing in biathlon or cross-country skiing at the (inter)national level were analyzed. About 50% and 71% of participants reported improved and reduced fitness, respectively, during specific MC phases, while 42% and 49% reported improved and reduced performance, respectively. Most athletes reported their worst fitness (47%) and performance (30%) and the highest number of side effects during bleeding (compared with all other phases). The phase following bleeding was considered the best phase for perceived fitness (24%) and performance (18%). Only 8% of participants reported having sufficient knowledge about the MC in relation to training, and 27% of participants communicated about it with their coach.
• Dysmenorrhea and Heavy Menstrual Bleeding in Elite Female Athletes: Quality of Life and Perceived Stress, Silvia Vannuccini, Flavia Fondelli, Sara Clemenza, et al., Reproductive Sciences, Volume 27, pp.888-894, (2020). In female athletes, the incidence of menstrual disorders is variable, and their impact on perceived stress and quality of life (QoL) is poorly known. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in nulliparous elite athletes of reproductive age, and the study population included 112 cases. A group of women not practising regular sport activities (n = 103) was used as control. Athletes had a significantly higher incidence of irregular periods and heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB) and a lower incidence of dysmenorrhea than controls. Furthermore, athletes had a better physical QoL but higher PPS level and a worse mental QoL than controls. HMB was associated with lower mental scores and higher PSS scores than those observed in athletes with normal bleeding. No difference was found in different sports regarding gynecological health, PSS level, and QoL. An increased incidence of HMB should be considered in elite athletes with increased PSS and impaired QoL.
• The Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Exercise Performance in Eumenorrheic Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Kelly Lee McNulty, Kirsty Jayne Elliott-Sale, Eimear Dolan, et al., Sports Medicine, Volume 50, pp.1813-1827, (2020). The results from this systematic review and meta-analysis indicate that exercise performance might be trivially reduced during the early follicular phase of the MC, compared to all other phases. Due to the trivial effect size, the large between-study variation and the number of poor-quality studies included in this review, general guidelines on exercise performance across the MC cannot be formed; rather, it is recommended that a personalised approach should be taken based on each individual's response to exercise performance across the MC.
• The Effects of Oral Contraceptives on Exercise Performance in Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Kirsty Elliott-Sale, Kelly McNulty, Paul Ansdell, et al., Sports Medicine, Volume 50, pp.1785-1812, (2020). OCP use might result in slightly inferior exercise performance on average when compared to naturally menstruating women, although any group-level effect is most likely to be trivial. Practically, as effects tended to be trivial and variable across studies, the current evidence does not warrant general guidance on OCP use compared with non-use. Therefore, when exercise performance is a priority, an individualised approach might be more appropriate. The analysis also indicated that exercise performance was consistent across the OCP cycle.
• Methodological Recommendations for Menstrual Cycle Research in Sports and Exercise, Janse De Jonge, X; Thompson, B; Han, A, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 51(12), pp.2610-2617, (2019). The aim of this review is to provide methodological recommendations for menstrual cycle research in exercise science and sports medicine based on a review of recent literature. Potential changes over the menstrual cycle are likely related to hormone fluctuations; however, only 44% of the selected studies measured the actual concentrations of the female steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone. It was shown that the likely inclusion of participants with anovulatory or luteal phase-deficient cycles in combination with small participant numbers has affected results in recent menstrual cycle research and, consequently, our understanding of this area. To improve the quality of future menstrual cycle research, it is recommended that a combination of three methods is used to verify menstrual cycle phase: the calendar-based counting method combined with urinary luteinizing hormone surge testing and the measurement of serum estrogen and progesterone concentrations at the time of testing. A strict luteal phase verification limit of >16 nmol·L for progesterone should be set. It is also recommended that future research should focus on the inclusion of the late follicular estrogen peak. It is envisaged that these methodological recommendations will assist in clarifying some of the disagreement around the effects of the menstrual cycle on exercise performance and other aspects of exercise science and sports medicine.
• Period Prevalence and Perceived Side Effects of Hormonal Contraceptive Use and the Menstrual Cycle in Elite Athletes, Daniel Martin, Craig Sale, Simon Cooper, et al., International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, Volume 13(7), pp.926-932, (2018). 430 elite female athletes completed a questionnaire to assess the period prevalence of HC use, the reasons for initiation and discontinuation of HCs, and the side effects experienced by HC and non-HC users. Of athletes studied, 49.5% were currently using HCs and 69.8% had used HCs at some point. Combined oral contraceptives were most commonly used (68.1%), with 30.0% using progestin-only contraceptives (implant = 13.1%, injection = 3.7%, and intrauterine system = 2.8%). Perceived negative side effects were more common with progestin-only HC use (39.1%) compared with combined-HC use (17.8%; P = .001) and were most prevalent in implant users (53.6%; P = .004). HC users reported perceived positive side effects relating to their ability to predict and/or manipulate the timing, frequency, and amount of menstrual bleeding. Non-HC users had a menstrual cycle length of 29 (5) d and 77.4% reported negative side effects during their menstrual cycle, primarily during days 1–2 of menstruation (81.6%). Approximately half of elite athletes used HCs, and progestin-only contraceptive users reported greater incidences of negative side effects, especially with the implant. Because of the high interindividual variability in reported side effects, athletes and practitioners should maintain an open dialogue to pursue the best interests of the athlete.
• Use of Oral Contraceptives to Manipulate Menstruation in Young, Physically Active Women, Schaumberg, Mia A.; Emmerton, Lynne M.; Jenkins, David G.; et.al., International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, Volume 13(1), pp.82- (2018). Menstruation and menstrual symptoms are commonly cited barriers to physical activity in women. The delay or avoidance of menstruation through extended oral-contraceptive (OC) regimens may mitigate these barriers, yet information on menstrual- manipulation practices in young physically active women is sparse. The majority (74%) of OC users reported having deliberately manipulated menstruation at least once during the previous year, with 29% reporting having done so at least 4 times. Prevalence of menstrual manipulation (at least once in the previous year) was not different between competitive athletes, sub-elite recreationally active women, and recreationally active women (77% vs 74% vs 72%). The most cited reasons for manipulating menstruation were special events or holidays (rated by 75% as important/very important), convenience (54%), and sport competition (54%). Menstrual manipulation through extended OC regimens is common practice in recreationally and competitively active young women, for a range of reasons relating to convenience that are not limited to physical activity. This strategy may help reduce hormone-related barriers to exercise participation, thereby positively affecting participation and performance.

• FitrWoman. Free mobile app that helps track your menstrual cycle and provides personalised training and nutritional suggestions tailored to the changing hormone levels throughout your cycle. A subscription option also available called FitrCoach which allows athletes to share their data with their coach to help monitor real-time status and plan training and optimise performance throughout the athletes' menstrual cycle.
• Menstrual Cycle Tracking, (accessed 21 March 2023). Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle impacts mood, energy levels, risk of ACL injuries and female athlete’s ability to train and perform. AthleteMonitoring.com helps you monitor menstrual phases, symptoms, load, mitigate risk, and safely maximize athletic potential.
• NETBALLHer, England Netball, (accessed 16 June 2023). Working with female health experts, The Well HQ, England Netball is aiming to re-write the rules and reimagine best practice around the female body’s life stages. NETBALL Her provides information on key topics such as Pelvic Health; Menopause; the Menstrual Cycle; Bras & Kit; Nutrition; Pre & Post Natal; Injury; and Puberty. More resources, myth busting articles, relatable videos, and Her Latest Stories, all rooted in netball, at every level of the game are added regularly.
• Balanced Female Health, Sport New Zealand, (May 2023). A resource for adults supporting young people in community sport. Developed by health professionals working in the sport sector, this resource covers changes throughout female puberty, the menstrual cycle, and factors that impact the physical health and mental wellbeing of all young people.

• Let's Get Talking (Athletic Training, Performance and the Menstrual Cycle), English Institute of Sport, YouTube, (April 2021).

• Breast health researcher heading to FairBreak Invitational with message for female cricketers, Justin Huntsdale, ABC Illawarra, (4 April 2023). When breast health researcher Deirdre McGhee assessed 90 international female cricketers last year, she was shocked by what she found. Her research found female cricketers suffer a high number of breast injuries, most of which go unreported and untreated. Not only had 30 per cent of the players experienced a breast injury while playing the sport, fewer than 10 per cent had even reported it. She will run clinics to train female athletes in appropriate sports bra use and breast injury treatment.
• ‘Women aren’t just small men’: World Rugby funds landmark study into breast injuries, Carla Jaeger, Sydney Morning Herald, (22 March 2023). World Rugby is funding an Australian landmark study to investigate the cause and impact of breast injuries sustained during matches, taking the lead on how sporting codes tackle the widespread yet little-understood problem affecting women who play contact sport.
• The importance of the pelvic floor in returning to physical activity after childbirth, Iris Lesser, Megan Sawatsky, SIRC blog, 20 July 2022). The pelvic floor is a crucial group of muscles that helps maintain bladder and bowel control, support internal organs, and coordinates with the deep core, diaphragm and deep back muscles. These muscles can require rehabilitation after having done a lot of the heavy lifting during pregnancy and possibly having been injured during childbirth.
• Zena Sport: Helping a new generation of females to play with confidence, Australian Sports Technologies Network, (8 June 2022). Women’s participation in sport is booming but so is the rate of injury. Research reveals that women have a higher risk of injury compared to men and too often we wait for an injury to occur and then we do something about it.
• How Australian football is tackling the ACL injury problem for women athletes, Samantha Lewis, ABC News, (28 February 2022). ACL injuries have disproportionately affected women compared with their male counterparts since data began being recorded in the 1990s. Early theories around why women were more likely than men to sustain ACL injuries overwhelmingly pointed to "sex"-based biological factors: anatomy, physiology, biomechanics, hormones. But as research has evolved and more gender-specific data has been collected, this essentialised biological framing of women's bodies has started to be questioned.
• AFL Women's Joins VU in Landmark Study to Improve Mental Health and Wellbeing of Women Athletes, Victoria University, (4 November 2021). The AFL are proud to be a lead industry partner on Victoria University’s (VU) commonwealth-funded national study into factors that impact mental health and wellbeing of women athletes. Researchers from Victoria University’s Institute for Health and Sport are commencing a comprehensive study to assess and track the mental health and wellbeing of Australian women athletes in semi-professional and professional sports.
• Sports concussions affect men and women differently. Female athletes need more attention in brain research, Shreya Mcleod, James Donnelly, The Conversation, (5 May 2021). Female athletes are more likely to sustain a concussion than their male counterparts. Like males, women report a range of symptoms after a concussion, such as headaches, mental fatigue, concentration difficulties and mood swings. Although symptoms can last longer in some people, recovery from a concussion normally takes seven to ten days for adults. Research on length of recovery is mixed but overall supports that women take longer to recover than men. Women also perform worse on neurocognitive testing post-injury, which measures things like decision-making ability and processing. These gender-based differences may be due to a combination of factors.
• How to train like a woman, Dr Emma Ross, Baz Moffat and Dr Bella Smith, Athletics Weekly, (27 April 2021). Currently, female athletes usually train and are coached in a way which doesn’t always consider the ‘female’ part of being a female athlete. The support that is applied to their performance – nutrition, physiology, psychology, etc – tends to be based on research which has been done on men, or what has been seen to be successful with male athletes. But women are very different from men. Women have periods and menstrual cycles, they may use hormonal contraception, they have breasts, they are far more likely to have pelvic floor dysfunction, they have a much higher risk of injury, they manage emotions and derive confidence differently from men.
• AFLW gets a kick out of new finding, Victoria University, (11 February 2021). Using a 3D motion-capture system, Dr Cust measured elite women’s foot and ball velocities, kick impact efficiency, kick movement patterns and kick strategies. The results reveal differences in movement patterns between women’s and men’s kicks: the women had a greater knee and hip range of motion, and faster knee action speeds while kicking for both their preferred and non-preferred kick legs. The women also showed less knee bend on the support leg during higher impact kicks. The study is important because of the high impact and repetitive nature of kicking in elite Australian Football, leading to athlete-specific strengthening programs to avoid injuries.
• Research to curb injury in women’s footy, La Trobe University, (7 October 2020). La Trobe sports injury researchers are working with the AFL, Medibank and other partners to reduce knee injury among female Australian football players, thanks to a grant from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC).
• Sport Science on Women, Women in Sport Science. Mujika, Iñigo; Taipale, Ritva S., International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, Volume 14(8), pp.1013-1-14, (2019). This editorial article discusses issues on women in sport science and sex differences in responses and adaptations to training. Some interesting comments/links to research in the text include:
  • Unique to women is the ability to legally and ethically alter their hormonal profile and menstrual cycle by using exogenous hormones (hormonal contraceptives).
  • Approximately 42% of exercising women believe that their menstrual cycle has a negative impact on exercise training and performance.
  • Approximately 50% of elite athletes are currently using hormonal contraceptives, and up to 70% have used them. Unfortunately, we still do not fully understand the effects of the menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptives on training and performance.
  • Monitoring and reporting of menstrual-cycle phase takes a little extra time and effort but could explain “interesting” results. More research should test women in different phases of the menstrual cycle to further elucidate the possible phase effects on training responses, adaptations, and performance (instead of just testing in the follicular, or “low-hormone,” phase of the menstrual cycle, when hormonal profile is “most similar” to that of men).
  • When applicable, use of accurate measurements for determination of both ovulation and nonovulatory cycles may also be important (a menstrual bleed does not necessarily indicate ovulation).
  • Users of hormonal contraceptives should be included in research in their own group to further elucidate the possible effects of exogenous hormones on training adaptations and performance, and the type and delivery methods of hormonal contraceptives should be reported.
  • It would also be of benefit for researchers to consider the potential underlying issues that might have been a reason for using hormonal contraceptives (eg, relative energy deficiency in sport, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis, etc), as these may have influenced endogenous hormone profiles prior to taking hormonal contraceptives.

• Methodological Considerations for Studies in Sport and Exercise Science with Women as Participants: A Working Guide for Standards of Practice for Research on Women, Kirsty Elliott-Sale, Clare Minahan, Xanne Janse de Jonge, et al., Sports Medicine, Volume 51, pp.843861, (March 2021). The purpose of this paper was to highlight the specific considerations needed when employing women (i.e., from athletes to non-athletes) as participants in sport and exercise science-based research. These considerations relate to participant selection criteria and adaptations for experimental design and address the diversity and complexities associated with female reproductive endocrinology across the lifespan. This statement intends to promote an increase in the inclusion of women as participants in studies related to sport and exercise science and an enhanced execution of these studies resulting in more high-quality female-specific data.

• Female Performance and Health Initiative (FPHI), Australian Institute of Sport, (accessed 24 March 2023). The FPHI was established in October 2019, to improve female athlete specific knowledge and systems of support. The initiative will benefit Australian athletes, coaches, parents, sporting organisations and support staff in the sport sector and will raise awareness and understanding to key female athlete performance and health considerations, including but not limited to: the menstrual cycle and associated dysfunction including endometriosis and Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS); Medical conditions impacting female athletes; Pelvic floor health and incontinence; Breast health; Pregnancy and return to sport.
• Ignite Athlete Program, Swim Australia, (accessed 23 March 2023). This program has been designed to address the unique challenges that female athletes face when it comes to managing their health and wellbeing. We hope to empower you with the information you need to reach your full potential. Dive into the modules for: Evidence-based information and resources centred around female physiology; Guidance from Australian Dolphin swimmers; Direct access to a national network of women’s health experts from City Fertility.
• SmartHER: EIS prioritising female athlete health, English Institute of Sport, (accessed 24 March 2023). The English Institute of Sport (EIS) has prioritised opening up conversations amongst athletes, coaches and staff in high performance sport around female athletes’ menstrual cycle and its possible effects, as well as offering expertise to help elite British female athletes be healthy, happy and deliver world class performances.
• E-Alliance: research hub for gender and equity in sport, (accessed 24 March 2023). Created in late 2020, E-Alliance is a knowledge sharing hub made up of scholars and partner organizations from across Canada who are dedicated to gender+ equity in sport. E-Alliance is led by three co-directors, Dr. Gretchen Kerr (University of Toronto), Dr. Guylaine Demers (Université Laval) and Dr. Ann Pegoraro (University of Guelph).
• The Sports Bra Project [Australia], Women Sport Australia, (accessed 3 April 2023). The Sports Bra Project (TSBP) works to remove barriers to sports participation for women and girls around the world by providing new sports bras to organisations and programs operating in countries and communities where opportunities and access to sport is limited.

• Towards Improving the Safety and Wellbeing of Women in Sport, Victorian University, Institute of Health and Sport, (2023). Determining the factors that positively contribute to athletes’ wellbeing is crucial for the development of evidence-informed strategies that support and better target the needs of athletes. In order to address and improve the wellbeing of women athletes, it is necessary to examine gender specific stressors. The primary aims of the research investigation were to: Ascertain the current status of mental health and wellbeing in women elite and semi elite athletes (athletes who are financially supported by a sporting organisation or are paid to train and compete in their sport). Identify and understand the psychosocial stressors experienced by athletes. Report on safety and exposure to violence.
• Inspiring Women to be Active During Midlife and Menopause, Women in Sport, (May 2021). Within this new research, we examined every aspect of women’s lives over a five-month period to fully understand their experiences of menopause and physical activity and uncover the barriers that women experience to being active throughout midlife and menopause. We focused specifically on women in lower socioeconomic groups because we know they face additional barriers and are less likely to be active, and spoke exclusively to inactive women who had either lapsed from being active previously or had never enjoyed being active. Five principles to inspire women to be active in midlife:
  • Endless Possibilities – Expand perceptions and opportunities for being active.
  • Judgement-Free Zone – Welcoming and supportive environment.
  • Support Network – Offer built-in social support.
  • Expand the Image of What Sporty Means – Inspiring, relatable role models.
  • Make It Relevant – Reference specific, relevant benefits.

• Body confident coaching: a pilot randomized controlled trial evaluating the acceptability of a web-based body image intervention for coaches of adolescent girls, Jekaterina Schneider, Emily Matheson, Aline Tinoco, et al., Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, (22 May 2023). Body dissatisfaction is common among girls in sport, but coaches are unprepared and unskilled to address these concerns, and few resources for coaches exist. A new education program was found to be appropriate, useful, and enjoyable for coaches and improved their ability to recognize and address athletes’ body image concerns.
• Most modifiable risk factors for hamstring muscle injury in women’s elite football are extrinsic and associated with the club, the team, and the coaching staff and not the players themselves: the UEFA Women’s Elite Club Injury Study, Jan Ekstrand, Anna Hallén, Vittoria Marin, et al., Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, (1 May 2023). Article describes the perceived importance of suggested hamstring injury risk factors according to chief medical officers (CMOs) of European women’s professional football clubs. A secondary objective was to compare if these perceptions differed between teams with a lower-than-average and higher-than-average hamstring injury burden.Twenty-one risk factors were suggested, most of which were extrinsic in nature, hence associated with the coaching staff, the team or the club organization rather than with the players themselves. The risk factors with the highest average importance were: “lack of communication between medical staff and coaching staff” and “load on players” (each with a weighted average of 3.9), followed by “lack of regular exposure to high-speed football actions during training” and “playing matches 2–3 times a week” (weighted average of 3.8 and 3.7). Differently from the LOW group, the HIGH group perceived the coaching factors (style of coach leadership, training/exercise surveillance by coaching staff) as more important.
• Experience of Playing Sport or Exercising for Women with Pelvic Floor Symptoms: A Qualitative Study, Jodie Dakic, Jean Hay-Smith, Kuan-Yin Lin, et al., Sports Medicine - Open, Volume 9, Article number: 25, (April 2023). Experiencing PF symptoms during sport/exercise caused considerable limitation to participation. Generation of negative emotions and pain-staking coping strategies to avoid symptoms, limited the social and mental health benefits typically associated with sport/exercise in symptomatic women. The culture of the sporting environment influenced whether women continued or ceased exercising. In order to promote women’s participation in sport, co-designed strategies for (1) screening and management of PF symptoms and (2) promotion of a supportive and inclusive culture within sports/exercise settings are needed.
• Creating Prep to Play PRO for women playing elite Australian football: A how-to guide for developing injury-prevention programs, Andrea Bruder, Alex Donaldson, Andrea Mosler, et al., Journal of Sport and Health Science, Volume 12(1), pp.130-138, (January 2023). A 7-step intervention-development process, incorporating a partnership with the sport's governing organisation and a focus on engaging program implementers, was applied to create Prep to Play PRO, the first injury-prevention program for women playing elite Australian football. Critical stakeholders across multiple socioecological levels provided varied perspectives to guide Prep to Play's development and implementation strategy in the elite Australian Football League for Women. Prep to Play PRO is a flexible, dynamic injury-prevention strategy that is integrated into each training session. Prep to Play PRO is evidence-informed and context-specific and includes 5 stand-alone components (movement skills, football-specific preparation, education, strength and conditioning, and individual preparation).
• A multi-phase intervention study of sports bra prescription for elite UK female athletes preparing for the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics, Joanna Wakefield-Scurr, Amy Sanchez, Melissa Jones, et al., Research in Sports Medicine, (16 June 2022). Working with 142 UK female athletes preparing for Tokyo Olympics/Paralympics (27 sports), this multi-phase intervention assessed breast/bra knowledge, preferences, issues via surveys and breast/bra assessments. Data were used to develop two sports bras. A total of 112 athletes were prescribed one of the new bras through individual assessments. After four weeks, wear athletes completed evaluations. Pre-intervention breast/bra knowledge was low (83% ≤average), multiple breast/bra issues were reported and most athletes wore ill-fitting, loose bras, offering limited support. Post-intervention, 63% reported improved knowledge and 97% reported their prescribed bra as better than their original bra. Eighty-seven per cent reported benefitting from this intervention, with 17% reporting improved performance. This intervention effectively assessed sports bra needs, developed and implemented solutions, which improved knowledge and potentially performance for some UK athletes.
• Women Have Tendons… and Tendinopathy: Gender Bias is a “Gender Void” in Sports Medicine with a Lack of Women Data on Patellar Tendinopathy—A Systematic Review, Camilla Mondini Trissino da Lodi, Maria Paola Landini, Emanuela Asunis, et al., Sports Medicine - Open, Volume 8, article 74, (June 2022). Women represent only a minority of patients studied for this topic. The few documented cases are further fragmented by being related to different treatments, thus basically offering no solid evidence for results and limitations of any therapeutic approach in women. This literature analysis showed a greater gender gap than what is recognized in science and general medicine; it showed a gender blindness in sports medicine when investigating a common problem like patellar tendinopathy.
• The effect of washing and wearing on sports bra function, Joanna Wakefield-Scurr, Caitlin Hamilton, Katie Reeves, et al., Sports Biomechanics, (1 March 2022). ports bras provide support by restricting breast motion during exercise, which may prevent damage to breast structures. Laundering affects the mechanical properties of some sports bra materials. Bra function on the wearer after washing is unreported, meaning sports bra durability is unknown. This intervention study compared subjective and objective performance of sports bras that were washed, and worn/washed, to a control. Sports bra support reduced after 25 washes; this was compounded by wear. Participants detected reduced support, but comfort was sustained, suggesting replacement may not be considered. Guidelines on sports bra durability are recommended for breast health.
• Optimizing Health and Athletic Performance for Women, Celina de Borja, Cindy Chang, Rhonda Watkins, et al., Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine, Voluem 15, pp.10-20, (January 2022). Female athletes are considered high risk for certain conditions such as ACL tears, patellofemoral pain syndrome, bone stress injuries, sport-related concussions, and sexual violence in sport. Addressing factors specific to female athletes has been found to be valuable in preventing injuries. Strength and conditioning can optimize athletic performance but remains underutilized among female athletes. Although diversity in healthcare workforce has been found to be beneficial for multiple reasons, women remain underrepresented in sports medicine. Increasing female team physician representation may positively impact care for female athletes. Team physicians must understand the physiologic, biomechanical, and anatomic factors that are unique to female athletes in order to tailor injury prevention programs and optimize their athletic performance. Advocating for gender equity in sports medicine to advance representation of women in the field will increase workforce diversity and promote excellence in sports medicine care.
• Recommendations and Nutritional Considerations for Female Athletes: Health and Performance, Bryan Holtzman Kathryn Ackerman, Sports Medicine, Volume 51, pp.43–57, (September 2021). While general concepts about micro- and macronutrients and timing of food and fluids are addressed in sports science, rarely are the specific effects of women’s physiology on energy and fluid needs highly considered in research or clinical practice. Women differ from men not only in size, but in body composition and hormonal milieu, and also differ from one another. Their monthly hormonal cycles, with fluctuations in estrogen and progesterone, have varying effects on metabolism and fluid retention. Such cycles can change from month to month, can be suppressed with exogenous hormones, and may even be manipulated to capitalize on ideal timing for performance. But before such physiology can be manipulated, its relationship with nutrition and performance must be understood. This review will address general concepts regarding substrate metabolism in women versus men, common menstrual patterns of female athletes, nutrient and hydration needs during different phases of the menstrual cycle, and health and performance issues related to menstrual cycle disruption. We will discuss up-to-date recommendations for fueling female athletes, describe areas that require further exploration, and address methodological considerations to inform future work in this important area.
• Anterior cruciate ligament injury: towards a gendered environmental approach, Parsons JL, Coen SE, Bekker S, British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 55(17), pp.984-990, (August 2021). The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury rate for girls/women has not changed in over 20 years, and they remain 3–6 times more likely to experience injury compared with boys/men. To date, ACL injury prevention and management has been approached from a sex-based biological point of view which has furthered our understanding of injury risk factors, mechanisms, and prevention and rehabilitation programmes. However, the traditional sex-based approach does not take into account the growing recognition of how sex and gender (a social construct) are ‘entangled’ and influence each other. We propose adding gender as a pervasive developmental environment as a new theoretical overlay to an established injury model to illustrate how gender can operate as an extrinsic determinant from the presport, training and competition environments through to ACL injury and the treatment environment.
• Effect of Pelvic Floor Symptoms on Women's Participation in Exercise: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review With Meta-analysis, Jodie Dakic, Jean Hay-Smith, Jill Cook, et al., Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, Volume 51(7), pp.345-361, (July 2021). For 1 in 2 women, UI symptoms negatively affect exercise participation. Half of women with UI reported either stopping or modifying exercise due to their symptoms. Limited data on pelvic organ prolapse also demonstrated adverse exercise effect.
• Return to Sport and Reinjury Rates in Elite Female Athletes After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Rupture, Kate E. Webster, Sports Medicine, (7 January 2021). While there has been significant interest in the documentation of return to sport outcomes following anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury, the elite level female athlete has not been a focus of this research. This is despite women being at increased risk for ACL injury and considerable global growth in women participating in sport. Therefore, the focus of this review was to examine the available literature regarding return to sport outcomes in elite level women with an ACL injury. The topics of discussion focus on return to sport rates, timing and determinants of return to sport, longevity of play, return to sport performance, and further ACL injury. Knee health in the longer term is also briefly discussed along with the limitations of the existent literature.
• A Saddle sores among female competitive cyclists: A systematic scoping review, Keira Bury, Justine E. Leavy, Charlene Lan, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 24(4), pp.357-367, (2021). Saddle sores are a prominent but an under investigated health issue among female competitive cyclists. The authors found limited research investigating the prevalence, prevention and treatment of saddle sores among female competitive cyclists, although it has been described as a common occurrence by those in the cycling community. Research is required to understand its prevalence, along with trials to investigate prevention and management methods, so that evidence informed guidelines and/or protocols can be developed.
• Breast pain affects the performance of elite female athletes. Brisbine, Brooke R.; Steele, Julie R.; Phillips, Elissa J.; et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 38(5), pp.528-533, (2020). Although breast pain is problematic for many active women, no published research has investigated breast pain experienced by elite female athletes. This study aimed to examine the extent that mastalgia and exercise-induced breast pain affected the sporting performance of elite female athletes during training and competition. Five hundred and forty female athletes competing nationally or internationally across 49 different sports participated in the survey. Sixty-three percent of respondents reported experiencing breast pain associated with their menstrual cycle and 33% reported that this pain worsened during activity. Forty-four percent of athletes reported experiencing exercise-induced breast pain during training or competition. Both types of breast pain were also reported to negatively affect sporting performance (20% and 32%, respectively). Mastalgia associated with the menstrual cycle and exercise-induced breast pain should be acknowledged as potential problems affecting the sporting performance of elite female athletes. Awareness around the impact of breast pain and the development and implementation of breast pain management strategies are essential for this population.
• Effects of Breast Motion on Lower-Body Kinematics during Running, Gibson Taylor M., Langenderfer Joseph E., Ustinova Ksenia I., International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, Volume 8(2), pp.51-56, (2020). We measured the effects of breast motion on lower-body kinematics during overground running. Thirty female participants aged 18–60 years completed two blocks of three trials each of overground running for 25 m at self-selected pace under two conditions: with and without breast support provided by a sports bra. Participants' body movements were analyzed with 18 parameters characterizing breast and lower-body kinematics. Sports bra use reduced breast motion and increased about 83% of the lower-body kinematic parameters, including running velocity; stride length; foot clearance; vertical and lateral center of mass displacement; and thorax, hip, knee, and ankle range of motion (all p < 0.05). Among the changed characteristics, the stride length, center of mass displacements, thorax and knee range of motions correlated negatively (r = –0.25 to –0.46) with the velocity of breast motion. Therefore, the reduction of breast motion may improve lower-body kinematics during running, which may influence sport and leisure performance.
• Sport-Related Concussion in Female Athletes: A Systematic Review, Neil K. McGroarty, Symone M. Brown, and Mary K. Mulcahey, Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 8(7), (2020). A total of 25 studies met the inclusion criteria. Female athletes appear to sustain more severe concussions than male athletes, due in part to a lower biomechanical threshold tolerance for head impacts. Additionally, concussions may alter the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, resulting in worse symptoms and amenorrhea. Although females are more likely to report concussions than males, underreporting still exists and may result in concussions going untreated.
• The Occurrence, Causes and Perceived Performance Effects of Breast Injuries in Elite Female Athletes, Brisbine, Brooke R.; Steele, Julie R.; Phillips, Elissa J.; et.al., Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, Volume 18(3), pp.569-576, (August 2019). This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, causes and perceived performance effects of breast injuries in elite female athletes across a wide range of sports. A custom-designed survey was distributed to female athletes aged over 18 years who were competing nationally or internationally in their chosen sport. 504 elite female athletes from 46 different sports completed the survey. 36% of participants (n = 182) reported experiencing breast injuries and 21% (n = 37) perceived that their breast injury negatively affected their performance. Contact breast injuries were reported by significantly more athletes involved in contact or combat sports and by athletes with larger breasts or a higher body mass index. Frictional breast injuries were reported by significantly more older athletes or those with larger breasts. Less than 10% of participants who experienced breast injuries reported their injury to a coach or medical professional and only half used any prevention strategies. Athletes, coaches and medical professionals associated with women’s sport need to be made aware of the occurrence and potential negative effects of breast injuries. It is critical to normalise conversations around breast health so that athletes can be encouraged to report and, when necessary, receive treatment for breast injuries. Further research is also required to better understand factors that affect breast injuries in sport in order to develop evidence-based breast injury prevention strategies.
• Breast Injuries in Female Collegiate Basketball, Soccer, Softball and Volleyball Athletes: Prevalence, Type and Impact on Sports Participation, Laura Smith, Tamara Eichelberger, Edward Kane, European Journal of Breast Health, Volume 14(1), pp.46-50, (2018). The long-term effects and sequelae of breast injuries reported by female collegiate athletes during sport play are unknown. Nearly 50% of participants had a breast injury during sports activities. Although 18.2% indicated that breast injury affected sports participation, only 9.6% of the injuries were reported to medical personnel with 2.1% receiving treatment.

• AIS Female Performance and Health Initiative resources (accessed 24 March 2023)
  • Education modules. The AIS has partnered with specialist medical practitioners, high performance athletes and high performance coaches to design a suite of online learning modules for athletes, parents, coaches and medical practitioners. These modules aim to increase your knowledge about the menstrual cycle; menstrual abnormalities; puberty; hormonal contraception; bone, pelvic and breast health, body image; low energy availability and nutrition; and, considerations for coaches and medical practitioners working with female athletes.
  • Breast health and bra fit.
  • Endometriosis.
  • Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS).
  • Pelvic floor health.
• Breast Support Resources, University of Wollongong, (accessed 24 March 2023). Guidelines and resources to help support breast health for female athletes and active women.
  • “Sports Bra” web-based app. A free app, supported by the Australian Institute of Sport, empowers women of all ages, breast sizes, and activity levels to choose a sports bra that provides proper support and a comfortable fit for exercise.
• NETBALLHer, England Netball, (accessed 16 June 2023). Working with female health experts, The Well HQ, England Netball is aiming to re-write the rules and reimagine best practice around the female body’s life stages. NETBALL Her provides information on key topics such as Pelvic Health; Menopause; the Menstrual Cycle; Bras & Kit; Nutrition; Pre & Post Natal; Injury; and Puberty. More resources, myth busting articles, relatable videos, and Her Latest Stories, all rooted in netball, at every level of the game are added regularly.
• Balanced Female Health, Sport New Zealand, (May 2023). A resource for adults supporting young people in community sport. Developed by health professionals working in the sport sector, this resource covers changes throughout female puberty, the menstrual cycle, and factors that impact the physical health and mental wellbeing of all young people.
• Towards improving the safety and wellbeing of women in sport: Call to action and mental health and wellbeing resources, Victoria University, (2023). This resource accompanies the listed recommendations in the report ‘Towards improving the safety and wellbeing of women in sport’. Below are a number of actions you can take and resources you can access. These resources have been categorised according to the thematic areas of psychosocial stress identified by the findings of Victoria University’s (VU) survey and interviews with women athletes, as well as VU’s synthesis of published research1 . These thematic areas include concerns over pregnancy and parenting, financial security, mental health, body shape and weight, and responding to violence.