EVIDENCE BASE FOR SPORT

Physical Activity

The benefits of regular physical activity are numerous and supported by a broad body of research and evidence. Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure.

It can be undertaken in many different ways: walking, cycling, sports and active forms of recreation (e.g. dance, yoga, tai chi). PA can also be undertaken at work and around the home. All forms can provide health benefits if undertaken regularly and of sufficient duration and intensity.

Physical inactivity is a leading risk factor for premature mortality and reduced quality of life—both physical and mental. High levels of sedentary behaviour and physical inactivity at a population level place a significant burden on a nation’s health budget and its economy.

Sport in its many forms can serve as an excellent platform for families, communities and governments to encourage more people to get more active more often, and to increase their levels of PA.

Benefits of physical activity

Health

PA reduces the risk of developing a range of non-communicable diseases and illness including:

coronary artery disease
Type 2 diabetes
depression, anxiety or other mental illnesses
dementia/cognitive decline in older adults
some cancers
improve resilience to some communicable diseases

Individual and social

improved physical fitness
(flexibility, body composition, cardio-respiratory health, strength, endurance, and movement skills)
enhanced cognitive development
(mental concentration and sleep/wake cycles)
enhanced psychological and social development
(interpersonal skills, personal resilience, confidence and self-esteem)
improved productivity
lower health care costs and improved economic performance

Sport

Sport—particularly team-based sport—can provide stronger outcomes including:

improved resilience
improved mental health outcomes across the life course
positive role models; social connectedness
higher likelihood of meeting PA guidelines and continuing PA long term

Learn more about the benefits of physical activity.

Reading

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Aerobic exercise may improve thinking skills in adults of all ages, Linda Carroll, Reuters, (31 January 2019). Numerous studies have shown that aerobic exercise can improve cognition in seniors, but a small new study finds that vigorous workouts boost thinking skills in younger adults as well.
Even a 20-Second Exercise ‘Snack’ Can Improve Fitness, Gretchen Reynolds, New York Times, (23 January 2019). As little as 20 seconds of brisk stair climbing, done several times a day, might be enough to increase aerobic fitness.
Exercise Linked With Lower Risk of 13 Types of Cancer, Hope Cristol, American Cancer Society, (17 May 2016). Previous studies have investigated the link between physical activity and cancer risk, and results were inconclusive for most cancer types. The exceptions were colon, breast, and endometrial cancers. This new study, published May 16 in JAMA Internal Medicine, found that leisure-time physical activity was associated with a significantly decreased risk of not only these 3 cancers, but also esophageal cancer, liver cancer, stomach cancer, kidney cancer, and myeloid leukemia. In addition, physical activity was strongly associated with a decreased risk of multiple myeloma, a blood cancer, as well as cancers of the head and neck, rectum, bladder, and lung (in current and former smokers).
Exercise makes you happier than money, according to Yale and Oxford research, Ruqayyah Moynihan, Business Insider Deutschland, (3 April 2019). Researchers at Yale and Oxford say exercise is more important to your mental health than your economic status. The scientists found that while people who exercise regularly tend to feel bad for 35 days a year, nonactive participants felt bad for 18 days more. The team also found that certain sports that involve socializing can have more of a positive effect on your mental health than others.
The exercise that best supports your mental health, Sarah Berry, Sydney Morning Herald, (20 November 2019). Cycling or walking to and from work are among the best exercises for our mental health, according to a new paper, published in the journal Mental Health and Physical Activity. Along with active transport, any leisure activity we enjoy, whether it’s playing football, hitting the gym or going for a stroll, also reap mental health rewards.
Fitness and body mass index during adolescence and disability later in life [infographic], Pontus Henriksson, Hanna Henriksson, Per Tynelius, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine blog, (24 September 2019). As shown in the infographic below, both low cardiorespiratory fitness and obesity in adolescence were strongly associated with later disability pension. Thus, our findings display the relevance of high cardiorespiratory fitness and healthy body weight during adolescence in relation to later disability.
Forget long-term health benefits, get active for the short term rewards, Alexandra Parker and Melinda Craike, Canberra Times, (10 October 2019). The human psyche responds to immediate reward and the long-term physical health benefits of exercise - often years away - have failed to motivate us to move. Switching our public messaging and campaigns to mental health and social benefits of physical activity, may help motivate people into action. A focus on feeling good, enjoyment, managing daily stress, a sense of achievement, the opportunity to socialise with friends or spend time with family are likely to be more motivating for most people.
Get active and your health isn't the only thing that will benefit, Office for Recreation, Sport and Racing, South Australia, (accessed 17 January 2024). In the Active Lives survey (2019) we measured the activity levels of the SA population to test if the 'active population' (South Australians recording 150 minutes or more activity per week), have different health, wellbeing and social outcomes compared to inactive populations. The findings showed that:
- the active population had better overall health, required fewer health services and used them less frequently compared to somewhat active and inactive South Australians.
- Active South Australians were less likely to report using a hospital service (admission, ED or outpatient clinic) compared to those who did not do any physical activity and were also less likely to visit a specialist doctor.
- Health Economists found that on average, inactive South Australians consumed around $1,500 more in public health services a year.
- Initial estimates suggest that during an adult’s lifetime, insufficient physical activity has the potential to cost the South Australian public health system an additional $86,366.
- If every South Australian could do just 30 minutes of activity each day, and their health costs then matched that of the active population, the analysis shows we could save more than $800m annually in public health costs.
Golfing regularly could be a hole-in-one for older adults’ health, Omar Saeed, M.D. and Fareed Suri, M.D., American Stroke Association International Stroke Conference – Poster Presentation TP172, Heart Foundation, (12 February 2020). Regularly golfing, at least once per month, was found to lower the risk of death among older adults. While the protective effects of playing golf have not been linked to reduction of heart attack and stroke risk, researchers note the positive effects of exercise and social interaction for older adults unable to participate in more strenuous exercise.
GWI report: global physical activity sector worth US$828bn, Tom Walker, Sports Management, (15 October 2019). The physical activity economy is now a US$828bn (€752bn, £655bn) market – and its value is expected to grow further to US$1.1tn (€1tn, £870bn) by 2023.
Here’s how exercise reduces anxiety and makes you feel more connected, Kelly McGonigal, Washington Post, (21 January 2020). People who are physically active are happier and more satisfied with their lives. They have a stronger sense of purpose, feel more gratitude, are more connected to their communities, and are less likely to be lonely or anxious.
How much do sedentary people really need to move? It’s less than you think, Emmanuel Stamatakis, Joanne Gale and Melody Ding, University of Sydney, The Conversation, (23 April 2019). People who spend much of their day sitting may need to move around less than we thought to counteract their sedentary lifestyle, new research shows. About 20-40 minutes of physical activity a day, equivalent to meeting the physical activity guidelines of 150 to 300 minutes a week, seems to eliminate most health risks associated with sitting.
How much is physical inactivity costing the world? University of Sydney news, (28 July 2016). New research reveals the enormous economic burden of physical inactivity. "Based on our data, physical inactivity costs the global economy INT67.8 billion in 2013, with Australia footing a bill of more than AUD $805 million. At a global and individual country level these figures are likely to be an underestimate of the real cost".
Interactive body map: physical inactivity and the risks to your health, Carol Maher, National Heart Foundation Senior Research Fellow in Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour and Sleep, University of South Australia and Tim Olds, Professor of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, The Conversation, (8 December 2016). This interactive body map brings together scientific evidence on the links between lack of physical activity and disease.
Just 15 min of exercise a day would 'boost world economy by US$100bn', Tom Walker, Sport Management, (8 November 2019). A study assessing the impact of physical inactivity on national economies has suggested that if all adults aged 18-64 walked just 15 minutes more a day, the world economy would grow by an estimated $100bn a year until 2050.
Lack of physical activity costing UK employers £6.6bn, Tom Walker, Sports Management, (27 September 2019). Getting employees more physically active could save UK businesses up to £6.6bn through improved employee productivity each year.
Organized sports in childhood linked to better emotional health in adolescence: study, Presse Canadienne, (9 June 2019). A study of Quebec children has found a link between consistent participation in organized sports in childhood and better emotional health once the child reaches the age of 12.
Physical Activity, World Health Organisation website, (accessed 17 January 2024)
Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour: Research and Statistics, Department of Health Australia, (last updated 21 November 2017). This page contains scientific evidence review reports and key facts and figures regarding physical activity and sedentary behaviour.
Physical activity makes heart attack patients feel better, Reviewed by James Ives, News Medical Life Sciences, (24 April 2020). Heart attack patients who take part in a lifestyle improvement program feel better - especially when they do additional physical activity. That's the finding of a large study presented today on ACVC Essentials 4 You, a scientific platform of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC).
Study confirms golf's huge benefits, The R&A, Golf Australia, (30 September 2020). An international research study has found new evidence to suggest golf can provide significant health benefits to older participants in the form of improved muscle strength and balance. Underlining the sport’s capability to improve the physical health of participants, the evidence suggests golf can improve quality of life through muscle strengthening, improved balance, aerobic exercise (equivalent to gym-based work or yoga) and social interaction.
Swimming saving NHS £357m a year, Tom Walker, Sports Management, (4 November 2019). Swim England has called on the government and healthcare professionals to "maximise the benefits" of swimming, after a report suggests that the activity saves the NHS more than £357m a year.

Reports

Active Lives South Australia Health Economic Analysis - an evidence base for potential of health promotion strategies to reduced public health costs with meeting of adult physical activity guidelines, Eckermann, Simon; Crisp, Michelle; Willan, Andy, Centre for Health Service Development, Australian Health Services Research Institute, University of Wollongong, prepared for SA Office of Recreation, Sport and Racing and SA Health, (May 2020). The primary underlying aim of this health economic analysis is to start to inform the need for active live health promotion policy initiatives through robustly estimating potential population level health system cost savings from shifting adult populations from not meeting PA guidelines to meeting guidelines. Even under the most conservative model with high cost respondents removed the potential annual cost saving remains more than $1,000 per adult ($1,121) from meeting vs not meeting PA guidelines and $646 million annually if the whole population were shifted. The potential cost saving to the SA health system from more achievable 5% marginal shifts with health promotion strategies in the population under this conservative assumption ignoring high cost respondents remains more than $30 million annually.
12 minutes more: The importance of physical activity, sports and exercise in order to improve health, personal finances and the pressures on the NHS, Lordan G, Pakrashi D and Jones A, Nuffield Health UK,(2013). This report cites current research that supports the value of sport and physical activity for long-term health benefits. The report also links sport and physical activity to personal financial and population-wide economic benefits. Realising the benefits of sport, exercise and physical activity does not require expensive structural change to the public sector or government legislation. We simply need a more exercise friendly environment and a change of attitude, asking ourselves ‘How do we get an extra 12 minutes of physical activity into our day?’
2014 Consensus Statement from the first Economics of Physical Inactivity Consensus (EPIC) Conference, Vancouver, Davis J, Verhagen E, Bryan S, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 48(12), pp.947-951, (2014). The 'Economics of Physical Inactivity Consensus Workshop' (EPIC) was held in Vancouver, Canada, in April 2011. Goals of the workshop were to: (1) detail existing evidence on effective physical inactivity prevention strategies; (2) introduce economic evaluation and its role in health policy decisions; (3) discuss key challenges in establishing and building health economic evaluation evidence; and (4) provide insight into interpretation of economic evaluations. Investment decisions for promoting physical activity are based upon evidence and estimated return on investment. Program settings include schools, transportation systems, urban design, public education, primary care strategies, community programs and ‘sport for all’ initiatives. The economic burden of physical inactivity can be quantified in terms of health care costs and loss of productivity due to preventable or controllable diseases. Evaluation of evidence produced consensus on these points:
- Physical inactivity is a well-established health problem.
- The economic burden of physical inactivity accounts for 1–3% of total healthcare costs annually.
- There is high-quality evidence to suggest that physical inactivity can be mitigated; thus costs can be saved.
- It is currently difficult to determine how much can be saved. This is difficult to determine because of methodological challenges specific to conducting economic evaluations of physical inactivity interventions both at an individual and population level.
- Further research must focus on alignment with decision-making priorities and use of cost-utility analysis methodology.
Active and Healthy Ageing through Sport, van Uffelen J, Jenkin C, Westerbeek H, Biddle S and Eime R, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University for the Australian Sports Commission, (2015). Organised sport, as one form of physical activity, provides an excellent opportunity for older adults to be active in an enjoyable setting. In addition to personal enjoyment, regular physical activity can improve physical and mental health, with the potential to improve overall quality of life. Furthermore, club-based or team-based sport participation has been associated with better social health, due to the interactive nature of participation. However, despite the known benefits of sport participation, there is a decline with age. The overall aim of this report is to provide knowledge about sport participation among the population of aging adults in Australia. For the purpose of this report, the age of 50+ years has been used and is referred to as ’older adults’. The specific aims of this report are: (1) to improve our knowledge about sport participation by older adults; (2) to summarise what is known about the benefits of sports participation and the barriers faced by older adults; and (3) to provide information about the opportunities, strategies and potential modifications that may increase sport participation by older adults. Data were used from two population-based surveys, the 2010 Exercise Recreation and Sport Survey (ERASS) and the 2013 Australian Health and Social Science study (AHSS). In addition, surveys from 192 National and State/Territory Sporting Organisations (NSOs and SSOs); plus eight focus group interviews were conducted, that included both sport club members and non-sport club individuals.
Active Citizens Worldwide: annual report 2019, Active Citizens Worldwide, (2019). Now in the second year ACW works to provide compelling evidence from participating cities (Auckland, London, Singapore, Stockholm) to shed light on the value of sport and physical activity (economic, health, social) and the complex systemic interplay between socio-economics, demographics, policy, and sport/physical activity participation. Some highlights of the report include: Physically active individuals are: 6% happier; 28% more trusting of community: have 6% higher life satisfaction; and, 14% less psychologically distressed. Sport can also lead to more time spent with others. For every hour spend doing sport, 48 minutes are spent with other people; for non-sport exercise 1 hour=23 minutes spent with others. The report also highlights that well-off individuals are up to 1.7 times more likely to be active than those less well-off and the participation gap between men and women remains pronounced in all participating cities.
Brain Boost: How sport and physical activity enhance children’s learning, what the research is telling us, Smith J, Government of Western Australia, Department of Sport and Recreation, (2015). This report is a follow-up to one published in 2010, it updates the latest research supporting the positive link between physical activity (including sport) and cognitive development and academic success. It details findings from Australian and international research published in peer reviewed journals and it provides summaries of intervention and longitudinal research, correlational studies, and research reviews.
The economic benefits of a more physically active population: An international analysis, Marco Hafner, , Erez Yerushalmi, William D. Phillips, et.al., RAND Corporation, (2019). The findings of this report suggest that making people physically more active is associated with economic benefits. Under three different physical activity improvement scenarios, it is estimated that by 2025, the global GDP could be between US$138 billion — US$338 billion higher with increased activity, compared to current physical activity levels. The economic benefits are increasing over time and by 2050 the estimated increase could be nearer to between US$314 billion and US$760 billion. A breakdown of the GDP gains suggests that reduced presenteeism drives the highest proportion of economic gain as a result of reducing physical inactivity — about 70 per cent — with reduced mortality and reduced sickness absence responsible for only about 30 percent of the overall GDP gains projected. Furthermore, the findings suggest that billions of dollars in global healthcare expenditure could be saved by improving physical activity rates. Overall the models estimate that between US$8.7 billion - US$11.2 billion in present global healthcare expenditure could be saved by making people physically more active, with those savings rising to between US$16 billion and US$20.6 billion by 2050.
The economic cost of physical inactivity in Europe, International Sport and Culture Association (ISCA) and Centre for Economics and Business Research, (2015). This report examined the prevalence of physical inactivity in six European countries – Poland, Germany, France, Spain, Italy and the United Kingdom, using World Health Organization (WHO) physical activity guidelines as a benchmark. Inactivity contributes to obesity, but has far-reaching impacts on health. Understanding physical activity’s role in achieving energy balance and preventing obesity is an important part of effective public health policy. However, the consequences of physical inactivity are not solely related to weight gain. Individuals who are normal weight, but who are physical inactive, are still at increased risk of non-communicable diseases such as stroke, type two diabetes, some cancers and coronary heart disease. The direct cost of population-wide physical inactivity among the six focus countries in this study was estimated to be €7.6 billion in 2012. It’s estimated that a 20% reduction in the rate of physical inactivity could save 100,000 deaths annually and €11.8 billion across the 28 European Union countries.
Economic value of community club-based sport in Australia, Australian Sports Commission and Griffith University, (2017). The objective of this report was to develop a valid model to provide an economic estimate (i.e. Australian dollar value) of social benefits associated with the provision of, and participation in, club-based community sport in Australia. This was carried out using two measures of community based club sport participation: those taking part at least once per week for a minimum of 30 minutes, and those taking part at least three times per week for at least 30 minutes each time. The report estimated the financial value of 3 different measures of subjective well-being as well as for social capital. Although the income compensation values are high (billions of dollars) the authors caution that these do not represent any specific expenditures either by sports participants or government, but rather a theoretical value that would be needed to compensate the sport participant if they were prevented from taking part in sport in order to maintain the same level of subjective well-being or social capital.
The economics of exercise: Measuring the business benefit of being physically fit, PJM Economics for AXA PPP healthcare, (September 2019). Highlights the substantial return on investment businesses could stand to make from increasing physical activity levels among employees. According to the study, if all employees met the recommended guidelines of doing 75 minutes of vigorous activity or 150 minutes of moderate activity per week (just over 20 minutes per day), it could deliver up to £6.6 billion in direct productivity gains to businesses each year.
Everybody Active, Every Day: An evidence-based approach to physical activity, Varney J, Brannan M and Aaltonen G, Public Health England, (2014). This report provides evidence that physical activity reduces the risk of many preventable diseases. It also supports the role of physical activity in enhancing the life of everyone, from children to mature age.
Game of Life: how sport and recreation can help make us healthier, happier and richer, Cox S, Sport and Recreation Alliance, (2012). The ‘Game of Life’ is a document that brings together current evidence from the United Kingdom to support the underlying belief that participation in sport and recreation can benefit society and individuals.
Getting Australia Active III: A systems approach to physical activity for policy makers, Bellew B, Nau T, Smith B, Bauman A (Eds.), The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre and The University of Sydney, (April 2020). GAA III provides design specifications on effective policies and programs across eight policy domains, guidance on priority investments, case studies, and links to online resources. Some key summaries relevant to this topic are:
- The sport and recreation domain and physical activity (2020). Everyone can benefit from moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during sport. To increase participation in sport in Australia, there needs to be: A paradigm shift towards a ‘sport for all’ model – the idea that sport is not just about elite performance; A repositioning of the sports system away from organised competitive sport and more towards social formats, targeting people across the life course.
- The co-benefits of physical activity promotion (2020). Promoting physical activity is relevant to every sector as it would result in social, economic and environmental co-benefits. Physical activity is a best buy for society as a whole, addressing physical inactivity should be a societal and cross-sectoral priority. Thinking of the bigger picture and communicating the co-benefits of physical activity to other sectors helps provide a core rationale for cross-sectoral strategies and partnerships.
Government response to the House of Commons Health Select Committee report on the impact of physical activity and diet on health, Sixth Report of Session 2014-15, Department of Health, United Kingdom, (July 2015). The Government recognises the seriousness of public health issues, and the need to increase levels of physical activity, improve diet and reduce obesity as key public health priorities. For too long, physical activity has been seen merely in the light of its benefits in tackling obesity. However, there is compelling evidence that physical activity in its own right has huge health benefits totally independent of a person’s weight. It has been suggested that increasing physical activity levels could have greater impact on reducing mortality than reducing weight. The Chief Medical Officer’s guidelines for recommend levels of activity will help people derive the greatest health benefits; but even small increases in activity levels can have a dramatic positive impact on health.
Her life depends on it III: Sport, physical activity, and health and wellbeing of American girls and women, Women’s Sports Foundation, (2015). This comprehensive report reviews the content of over 1,500 studies (including nearly 400 additional references since the previous edition) and summarises existing and emerging research on the links between participation in sport and physical activity and the health and wellbeing of American girls and women. As with the previous editions in 2004 and 2009, this analysis confirms that physical activity and sport provide the critical foundation that allows girls and women to lead healthy, strong, and fulfilled lives.
In Sport, We Trust: how sport can bridge the UK trust deficit, SPORTED, (2019). The essential components of this work are new, innovative analysis of large national population datasets in the UK to establish a robust link between the activity (sport group engagement) and social outcomes (community cohesion measures), allowing us to report new findings and identify gaps in the evidence. This analysis includes Sport England’s own Active Lives dataset, which is analysed alongside other important datasets like Understanding Society, Taking Part and Community Life. All these datasets track participation in sports groups and almost all of the outcomes relevant to the DCMS Sporting Future Strategy and Sport England Evaluation Framework (health, wellbeing, individual development, community development). The target group of this study are young people aged 25 and below. Some key findings from the report include:
- There is a trust deficit dividing the UK: young people from lower socio-economic groups are 23% less likely to trust their neighbours compared to those from higher socio-economic groups.
- Sport clubs can help bridge this trust deficit. Young people who are members of a local sports club have: Greater trust in other people; A stronger sense of belonging to their community; More close friends; Greater levels of life satisfaction, happiness and health; and, Greater desire to give back to their community through volunteering.
- People from disadvantaged backgrounds have the most to gain. When young people are part of a local sports club, those from low socio-economic groups report a ten-time higher increase in trust and a three-time higher increase in life satisfaction compared to those from higher socio-economic groups.
Intergenerational Review of Australian Sport , Boston Consulting Group (BCG) for the Australian Sports Commission, (2017). This review focused on the overall sports sector, with a particular emphasis on participation in sport and community level sport. While the synergies between participation and high performance sporting outcomes are recognised as being important to any discussion about the value of sport, the primary purpose of this review was a global view of the sport sector. By observing trends related to participation, performance, and consumption of ‘sport’ (i.e. in terms of products and services sports provide). Some key economic conclusions from the report were that:
- Sport provides the Australian economy annual combined economic, health and education benefits of $83 billion [p. 7].
- Sport creates significant value with at least $7 returned on every dollar expended in the sector. This figure is a combination of: direct economic benefits, the network of volunteers and not-for-profits, avoided health costs, and education benefits [p. 9].
Move to be Well: The Global Economy of Physical Activity, Global Wellness Institure, (2019). In 2018, the GWI found that the fitness/mind-body market was worth $595 billion, but this new research broadens the scope of that segment to the entire “physical activity economy,” which is now valued at $828.2 billion globally, and includes the sports and active recreation, fitness, and mindful movement core segments—along with the supporting markets of equipment and supplies, apparel and footwear, and technology.
Moving Ahead: The economic impact of reducing physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour, The Conference Board of Canada, (2014). Canadian physical activity guidelines indicate that adults should get at least 150 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week. This report explores the potential benefits that would ensue if 10% of the adult population improved their activity levels, in line with government recommended guidelines. It is estimated that such a change would significantly reduce the rates of major chronic health conditions, gross domestic product would increase by $7.5 billion, and health care spending would be reduced by $2.6 billion during the period 2015 to 2040.
Physical Activity 2014, Australian Medical Association, Position Statement, (2014). While physical activity forms part of the body’s energy balance equation, all too often the benefits of physical activity are only considered in relation to obesity and weight loss. The benefits of physical activity extend much further. Regular participation in physical activity is known to reduce the risk of physical health problems such as cardiovascular disease and stroke, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, some cancers and osteoporosis. There is also evidence that regular participation in physical activity improves both short- and long- term psychosocial wellbeing by reducing feelings of stress, anxiety and depression.
Physical activity and sedentary behaviour: Evidence summary, VicHealth, (2016). Regular physical activity contributes to good health across all life stages, whereas inactivity is one of the most significant risk factors, contributing to the global burden of disease. This evidence summary builds upon previous work and includes publications between 2009 and 2014. This report also includes physical activity statistics and trends for Victoria and Australia.
Physical Activity/Exercise and Diabetes: A Position Statement of the American Diabetes Association, Colberg S, Sigal R, Yardley J, et.al., Diabetes Care, Volume 39(11), pp.2065-2079, (2016). This position statement provides a clinically oriented review and evidence-based recommendations regarding physical activity and exercise in people with type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, and prediabetes. Regular exercise has considerable health benefits, including (but not limited to): improved blood glucose control in type 2 diabetes; reduced cardiovascular risk factors; a contribution to weight loss and weight management; and improved wellbeing.
The relationship between organised recreational activity and mental health, Street G and James R, Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer Control, Curtin University, Government of Western Australia, Department of Sport and Recreation, (5 July 2019). A review of current literature indicates that people who participate in sports clubs and organised recreational activity enjoy better mental health, are more alert, and more resilient against the stresses of modern living. Participation in recreational groups and socially supported physical activity is shown to reduce stress, anxiety and depression, and may reduce some symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.
Sources of resilience and their moderating relationships with harms from adverse childhood experiences, Karen Hughes, Kat Ford, Alisha Davies, et.al., Public Health Wales NHS Trust, (2018). This report looked at the impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and potential mitigating factors. They found that developing resilience through access to a trusted adult in childhood, supportive friends and being engaged in community activities, such as sports, reduced the risks of developing mental illness; even in those who experienced high levels of ACEs. Participation in sports, both as a child and adult, was a further source of resilience to mental illness, with being in current treatment for mental illness reducing from 23 per cent in adults that did not regularly participate in sports to 12 per cent in those that did.
The Value of Community Sport and Active Recreation Infrastructure, KPMG prepared for Sport and Recreation Victoria, (2020). A report commissioned by Sport and Recreation Victoria revealing economic benefits to the tune of AU$7.04 billion annually. The report is the first ever comprehensive investigation into the economic, health and social impacts of community sport and active recreation infrastructure in the state.
- By providing the perfect setting for communities to come together, connect, volunteer and learn, the report highlights the AU$2.6 billion in social benefits community sport and active recreation infrastructure delivers to the state.
- There are also the health benefits supported by community sport and active recreation infrastructure which include improved mental health and well-being, reduced risk of chronic illness, increased productivity is estimated at AU$2.3 billion.
- Economic benefits through construction and on-going employment include more than 13,000 full-time equivalent positions sustained through the delivery of sport and active recreation at facilities - injecting AU$2.1 billion into communities.
Value of Swimming, Swim England, (November 2019). As the national governing body for swimming, water polo, diving and synchronised swimming in England, Swim England commissioned this research to build a robust evidence base around the specific benefits of water-based activity. The findings show how swimming can positively contribute to physical and mental wellbeing, to individual and community development, and help to reduce the burden to the health and social care system. Some of the key benefits suggested by this report include that swimming is already reducing health and social care costs by up to £357million a year. This includes estimated savings from dementia, strokes, diabetes, colon cancer, breast cancer, depression, and reduced GP and psychotherapy visits by those who swim regularly. Additionally, across the different datasets analysed, a positive association was seen between swimming and: social connectedness; trust (in general and of neighbours); community cohesion; volunteering; percieved ability to achieve goals; life satisfaction; and, health and mental health.
Yet another reason sport is good for you! Roy Morgan Research, Article 6118, (17 March 2015). The latest findings from Roy Morgan Research show that the 1.35 million Australian adults who participate regularly in some kind of team sport are noticeably less likely than the average Aussie to experience depression, anxiety or stress. Between 2013 and 2014, 25% of Australians aged 18+ reported experiencing stress at some point in the preceding 12 months, compared with 21% of those who regularly play a team sport. This difference is most striking among the under-25 age group, with all three conditions being far less common among those who play team sport on a regular basis. Incidence of anxiety fell from 31% to 17%, depression from 17% to 8%, and anxiety from 20% to 10%.

Research

Exploring the Association Between Sport Participation and Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in a Sample of Canadian High School Students, Jessica Murphy, Karen Patte, Philip Sullivan, et.al., Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Volume 15(3), pp.268-287, (September 2021). The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between athletic status and symptoms of depression and anxiety in a large sample of Canadian high school students. Our results support earlier work, concluding that sport participation has beneficial effect on adolescent mental health. Results indicated a significant association between Varsity Sport (VS) participation and symptoms of depression and anxiety in the sampled adolescents. In both males and females, those who participated in VS had lower anxiety and depression scores than those who did not participate in VS. This effect held true regardless of participation status in Outside of school sport (OSS); however, the effect was stronger among those who participated in both VS and OSS. Such results suggest an additive effect of sport participation, in that more sport participation is associated with lower depression and anxiety scores. Although the beneficial effect of VS participation was seen across sexes, the relationship between VS participation and anxiety and depression scores was stronger in males.
A life-long approach to physical activity for brain health, Macpherson H, Teo W, Schneider L and Smith A, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, Volume 9, (May 2017). Growing evidence documents the importance of physical activity (PA) for brain health, with numerous studies indicating regular engagement in physical activities throughout life may be protective against cognitive decline and dementia in later life. The link between PA and brain health may be different at each stage of life from childhood, mid-life, and late life. This review summarises the current body of evidence linking regular PA and brain health across the lifespan.
1. During Childhood – Throughout infancy, childhood and adolescence, the brain undergoes dramatic change, with maturational processes occurring concurrently with, and in response to, functional gains in sensory, cognitive and behavioural domains. In particular, the first 5 years of life correspond with significant neurodevelopmental processes. There is growing evidence that regular engagement in PA during childhood can influence gray and white matter integrity, and this may have implications for cognitive development. Bilateral hippocampal volumes have been shown to be markedly increased in fitter, compared to less fit, 9 and 10 year old children and associated with better relational memory performance. PA interventions in childhood have the potential to improve white matter microstructural integrity.
2. Mid-life – The mid-life stage represents another critical period during which regular engagement in PA may preserve or even improve cognitive health later in life. The key findings from several studies revealed a positive association between PA and larger total brain volume, specifically attributed to increased cerebral gray matter volume, after adjustment for confounding variables (e.g. education, nutrition, socio-economic status). These findings indicate that PA is important and likely influences a range of different biological processes. Whilst the direct relationship between mid-life PA and brain structure is yet to be confirmed, there are a number of other well established indirect relationships between PA and vascular function that should be taken into account.
3. Older people – Declines in cognitive function can accelerate after age 60, with fluid cognitive processes such as working memory, processing speed and executive function particularly vulnerable to age-related impairment. In a recent investigation using data from a longitudinal heart study, individuals over the age of 60 who scored in the lowest quintile of a PA index also had an increased 10 year risk of dementia incidence compared to those with higher PA. Importantly, results from this study also indicate that greater global and hippocampal brain volume is related to higher levels of PA. These findings are consistent with observations of the neuroprotective effects of exercise from other cross-sectional and longitudinal investigations. The premise that regular participation in PA can exert a neuroprotective effect on the aging brain is supported by research examining the relationship between PA, cardiorespiratory fitness, and the microstructural integrity of the brain white matter.
A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for adults: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport, Rochelle M Eime, Janet A Young, Jack T Harvey, et.al., International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 10, article 135, (2013). This paper presents the results of a systematic review of the psychological and social health benefits of participation in sport by adults. There were many different psychological and social health benefits reported, with the most common being wellbeing and reduced distress and stress. Sport, particularly club-based or team-based sport, seems to be associated with improved psychosocial health in addition to improvements attributable to participation in PA. Notwithstanding this, individuals who prefer to participate in sport by themselves can still derive mental health benefits which can enhance the development of true-self-awareness and personal growth which is essential for social health. The authors also develop a conceptual model of Health through Sport based on the review results but recommend that further research into the causal link between sport and health is required.
ACSM Scientific Pronouncements: Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, American College of Sports Medicine, (2019). ACSM is pleased to present the scientific reviews underlying the second edition of the Physical Activity Guidelines. Health professionals, scientists, community organizations and policymakers can use the papers included in the ACSM Scientific Pronouncements: Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd Edition to promote more active, healthier lifestyles for individuals and communities.
Amount and Intensity of Leisure-Time Physical Activity and Lower Cancer Risk, Charles E. Matthews Steven C. Moore, Hannah Arem, et.al., Journal of Clinical Oncology, Volume 38(7), pp.686-697, (March 2020). A total of 755,459 participants (median age, 62 years [range, 32-91 years]; 53% female) were followed for 10.1 years, and 50,620 incident cancers accrued. Engagement in recommended amounts of activity (7.5-15 MET hours/week) was associated with a statistically significant lower risk of 7 of the 15 cancer types studied, including colon (8%-14% lower risk in men), breast (6%-10% lower risk), endometrial (10%-18% lower risk), kidney (11%-17% lower risk), myeloma (14%-19% lower risk), liver (18%-27% lower risk), and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (11%-18% lower risk in women). The dose response was linear in shape for half of the associations and nonlinear for the others. Results for moderate- and vigorous-intensity leisure-time physical activity were mixed. Adjustment for body mass index eliminated the association with endometrial cancer but had limited effect on other cancer types.
Associations Between Physical Activity and Depressive Symptoms by Weight Status Among Adults With Type 2 Diabetes: Results From Diabetes MILES–Australia, Melinda J. Craike, Kylie Mosely, Jessica L. Browne, et.al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 14(3), pp.195-202, (2016). PA is associated with fewer depressive symptoms among adults with Type 2DM, however the amount of PA associated with fewer depressive symptoms varies according to weight status. Lower amounts of PA might be required for people who are obese to achieve meaningful reductions in depressive symptoms compared with those who are healthy weight or overweight. Further research is needed to establish the direction of the relationship between PA and depressive symptoms.
Association between physical exercise and mental health in 1·2 million individuals in the USA between 2011 and 2015: a cross-sectional study, Sammi R Chekroud, Ralitza Gueorguieva, Amanda B Zheutlin, et.al., The Lancet Psychiatry, Volume 5(9), pp.739-746, (2018). This cross-sectional study analysed data from 1,237,194 people aged 18 years or older in the USA from the 2011, 2013, and 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance System survey. It compared the number of days of bad self-reported mental health between individuals who exercised and those who did not. The findings indicated that individuals who exercised had 1·49 (43·2%) fewer days of poor mental health in the past month than individuals who did not exercise but were otherwise matched for several physical and socio-demographic characteristics. All exercise types were associated with a lower mental health burden (minimum reduction of 11·8% and maximum reduction of 22·3%) than not exercising. The largest associations were seen for popular team sports (22·3% lower), cycling (21·6% lower), and aerobic and gym activities (20·1% lower), as well as durations of 45 min and frequencies of three to five times per week.
Associations of accelerometer-measured physical activity and physical activity-related cancer incidence in older women: results from the WHI OPACH Study, Humberto Parada Jr, Emily McDonald, John Bellettiere,et.al., British Journal of Cancer, Volume 122, pp.1409–1416, (2020). In this prospective study, 6382 women wore ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometers at the hip for up to 7 days during 2012–2013, and were followed over a median of 4.7 years for diagnosis of 13 invasive cancers. From the analysis the authors conclude that engaging in physical activity may play a beneficial role in the prevention of certain cancers in older women.
Association of Daily Step Count and Step Intensity With Mortality Among US Adults, Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Richard P. Troiano, David R. Bassett Jr., et.al., JAMA, Volume 323(12), pp.1151-1160, (2020). In this observational study that included 4840 participants, a greater number of steps per day was significantly associated with lower all-cause mortality (adjusted hazard ratio for 8000 steps/d vs 4000 steps/d, 0.49). There was no significant association between step intensity and all-cause mortality after adjusting for the total number of steps per day.
Association of Team Sports Participation With Long-term Mental Health Outcomes Among Individuals Exposed to Adverse Childhood Experiences, Easterlin MC, Chung PJ, Leng M, Dudovitz R. et al., JAMA Pediatrics, Volume 173(7), pp.681-688, (2019). In this study of 9668 individuals from a nationally representative database, among those with adverse childhood experiences, team sports participation during adolescence was significantly associated with better adult mental health outcomes, especially for males, including lower likelihood of having ever received a diagnosis of depression or anxiety and having current depressive symptoms. The findings suggest that participation in team sports is associated with better adult mental health outcomes among individuals exposed to adverse childhood experiences.
Associations of Fitness, Physical Activity, Strength, and Genetic Risk With Cardiovascular Disease: Longitudinal Analyses in the UK Biobank Study, Emmi Tikkanen, Stefan Gustafsson, Erik Ingelsson, Circulation , Volume 137(17), pp.2583-2591, (2018). The authors investigated whether or not physical activity demonstrated a reduction in the incidence of cardio vascular disease in both the general population as well as individuals with elevated genetic risk for these diseases. They found that higher grip strength and cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with lower risk of incident coronary heart disease and atrial fibrillation in each genetic risk score group. And, in particular, high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with 49% lower risk for coronary heart disease and 60% lower risk for atrial fibrillation among individuals at high genetic risk for these diseases.
Association of Leisure-Time Physical Activity Across the Adult Life Course With All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality, Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Diarmuid Coughlan, Scott P. Kelly, et.al., JAMA Network Open, Volume 2(3), (2019). This cohort study of 315,059 participants investigated whether there was an association between patterns in leisure-time physical activity occurring during adolescence (15-18 years of age) or early (19-29 years of age), middle (35-39 years of age), and later (40-61 years of age) adulthood and all-cause or cause-specific mortality? The authors found that maintaining physical activity from adolescence into later adulthood was associated with 29% to 36% lower risk for all-cause mortality and that being inactive but increasing physical activity during midlife was associated with 32% to 35% lower risk for mortality. This suggests that although long-term participation in physical activity may be important to lower mortality risk, the present study provides evidence that becoming physically active later in adulthood (40-61 years of age) may provide comparable health benefits.
Association of Leisure-Time Physical Activity With Risk of 26 Types of Cancer in 1.44 Million Adults, Steven C. Moore, I-Min Lee, Elisabete Weiderpass, et.al., JAMA Internal Medicine , Volume 176(6), pp.816-825, (June 2016). In this study of pooled data from 12 US and European cohorts, high vs low levels of leisure-time physical activity were associated with lower risks of 13 of 26 cancers. Most of these associations were evident regardless of body size or smoking history.
Australian Indigenous youth's participation in sport and associated health outcomes: Empirical analysis and implications, Dalton B, Wilson R, Evans J, and Cochrane S, Sport Management Review, Volume 18(1), pp.57-68,(2015). Analysis of the 2012 Mission Australia Youth Survey (MAYS) finds that among Indigenous youth aged 15–19 years there is a positive relationship between self-reported participation in sport and two health outcomes – rating of overall health and risk of mental health disorder. Indigenous youth who participate in sport are 3.5 times more likely to report good general health and 1.6 times more likely to have no probable serious mental illness. The significance of these findings may address the current gaps in preventive health service delivery to Indigenous communities, and for the development of grassroots, evidence-based, well resourced, culturally sensitive, inclusive and community-led programs.
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Depression, and Physical Activity: Making the Neuroplastic Connection, Cristy Phillips, Neural Plasticity, Volume 2017, Article 7260130, (2017). The data presented in this article suggests that moderate physical activity—a target that is practical, well tolerated, and likely to optimise exercise adherence—optimises BDNF and plasticity, particularly in persons with depression. Physical activity is already used as a relatively low-risk treatment option for managing depression, future population health efforts should consider how lifestyle factors can be used to treat and/or prevent mental disorders as part of the rehabilitation process.
Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Gray Matter Volume in the Temporal, Frontal, and Cerebellar Regions in the General Population, Katharina Wittfeld, Carmen Jochem, Marcus Dörr, et.al., MAYO Clinic Proceedings, Volume 95(1), pp.44-56, (2020). To analyze the association between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and global and local brain volumes. Cardiorespiratory fitness was positively associated with GM volume, total brain volume, and specific GM and white matter clusters in brain areas not primarily involved in movement processing. These results, from a representative population sample, suggest that CRF might contribute to improved brain health and might, therefore, decelerate pathology-specific GM decrease.
The cascade of positive events: Does exercise on a given day increase the frequency of additional positive events? Kevin C.Young, Kyla A. Machell, Todd B. Kashdan, et.al., Personality and Individual Differences , Volume 120, pp.299-303, (2018). Research suggests exercise promotes well-being while reducing the risk and symptoms of certain psychiatric disorders. Similarly, positive events improve quality of life and may minimize the impact of negative life events; a dearth of positive events is also associated with increased psychiatric symptoms. Thus, increasing physical exercise and the occurrence of positive events is central to well-being promotion. For three weeks, participants (N = 179) completed questionnaires at the end of each day. Multi-level modeling analyses revealed that daily exercise predicted increased positive social and achievement events on the same day. Exercise on one day also predicted greater positive social events on the subsequent day. Positive events did not affect exercise on the next day. Findings suggest that exercise creates a positive cascade, increasing positive social and achievement events experienced on the same day and positive social events on the following day.
Childhood Sport Profiles Predict Mental Health in Adolescence, Isabelle Doré, Marie-Pierre Sylvestre, Catherine M Sabiston, et.al., Conference paper presented at the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity conference, Hong Kong, (June 2018). This study examines the longitudinal associations between three sport profiles (recreational, performance, non-participation) in childhood and mental health in adolescence. Participants include 756 children age 10-11 years at inception, from the longitudinal Monitoring Activities of Teenagers to Comprehend their Habits (MATCH) study. They self-reported their participation in organized and unorganized PA in questionnaires administered every 4 months over 5 years during class time. Involvement in performance or recreational sport profiles in all 5 years was associated with flourishing mental health, relative to involvement in ≤4 years. the authors conclude that sport participation, especially in performance sport, during childhood and adolescence is associated with higher mental health in adolescence. If replicated, these findings support developing strategies to encourage children to engage and remain involved in sports into adolescence, to positively impact mental health.
Contribution of High School Sport Participation to Young Adult Bone Strength, Ward, Ryan C., Janz, Kathleen F., Letuchy, Elena M., et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 51(5), pp,1064-1072, (May 2019). This study assessed longitudinal effects of high school sport participation and muscle power on young adult bone strength. It found slightly different effects for male and female sport participants with former male interscholastic sport participants (in both power and non-power sports) having stronger bones than peers even when adjusting for current PA levels. For female interscholastic athletes the association was only with power sport participants. The authors conclude that muscle power alone did not fully explain differences in all bone outcomes, suggesting that sport participation has additional bone health benefits.
Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Cancer: a Global Perspective, World Cancer Research Fund, (2018). Our Third Expert Report assesses the past decade of cancer prevention research and the links between diet, nutrition, physical activity and cancer. Our independent panel of global experts has been evaluating the evidence on cancer prevention for many years. The 2018 report is our third comprehensive analysis since 1997 of the worldwide body of research available.
Does sports club participation contribute to health-related quality of life? Eime R, Harvey J, Brown W and Payne W, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 42(5), pp.1022-1028, (2010). This research looks at how community sports clubs provide opportunities for social interaction through both structured (organised and competitive) and unstructured (social) participation in sport, it has been suggested that involvement in club sport may impact positively on social wellbeing and mental health.
Domain-Specific Physical Activity and Mental Health: A Meta-analysis, Rhiannon Lee White, Mark J. Babic, Philip D. Parker, et.al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 52(5), pp.653-666, (2017). Included studies were published between 1988 and 2015 and had a combined sample size of 648,726. Of the 98 included studies, 93 examined leisure-time physical activity, 14 examined work-related physical activity, 15 examined transport physical activity, 16 examined household physical activity, three examined school sport, and three examined physical education. Multi-level meta-analyses showed that leisure-time physical activity ( r =0.13) and transport physical activity ( r =0.13) both had a positive association with mental health. Leisure-time physical activity ( r = –0.11) and school sport ( r = –0.09) both had an inverse association with mental ill-health. However, physical activity was not consistently associated with lower mental ill-health across domains, as work-related physical activity was positively associated with mental ill-health ( r =0.09). Household physical activity and participation in physical education had no relationship with mental health or mental ill-health. The authors include that the domain in which physical activity occurs influences the relationship between physical activity and mental health and should, therefore, be considered when developing interventions, treatment programs, and policy guidelines.
Don't worry, be happy: cross-sectional associations between physical activity and happiness in 15 European countries, Richards J, Jiang X, Kelly P, et.al., BMC Public Health, Volume 15, article 53, (2015). The association between physical activity and a number of markers of mental health (depression, anxiety, self-esteem, etc.) has been widely studied. This research analysed data collected in 2002 from 15 European countries (N=11,500). Self-reported physical activity and happiness were assessed using survey methods. Results showed a dose-response association with higher volumes of physical activity associated with higher levels of happiness. Subjects who were ‘very active’ had a happiness score that was 52% higher than those who were ‘inactive’. Also, when taking into account possible confounding factors, associations remained significant. The intensity of activity didn’t seem to matter too much. However, this study could not determine causation, it may be that happier people choose to be more physically active.
The dose–response effect of physical activity on cancer mortality: findings from 71 prospective cohort studies, Li T, Wei S, Shi Y, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 50(6), pp.339-345, (2016). Physical activity is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) to combat the increasing risk of death from chronic diseases. A meta-analysis was conducted to assess the association between physical activity and cancer mortality and the WHO recommendations to reduce the latter. A total of 71 cohort studies met the inclusion criteria and were analysed. The meta-analysis supports the current physical activity recommendations from WHO to reduce cancer mortality in both the general population and in cancer survivors. The data infer that physical activity after a cancer diagnosis may result in significant protection among cancer survivors.
The Economic Burden Of Physical Inactivity: A Global Analysis Of Major Non-Communicable Diseases, Ding Ding, Kenny Lawson, Tracy Kolbe-Alexander, et.al., The Lancet, Volume 388(10051), pp.1311-1324, (September 2016). Conservatively estimated, physical inactivity cost health-care systems international $ (INT$) 53·8 billion worldwide in 2013, of which $31·2 billion was paid by the public sector, $12·9 billion by the private sector, and $9·7 billion by households. In addition, physical inactivity related deaths contribute to $13·7 billion in productivity losses, and physical inactivity was responsible for 13·4 million DALYs worldwide. High-income countries bear a larger proportion of economic burden (80·8% of health-care costs and 60·4% of indirect costs), whereas low-income and middle-income countries have a larger proportion of the disease burden (75·0% of DALYs). Sensitivity analyses based on less conservative assumptions led to much higher estimates.
Economic Impact of Moderate‐Vigorous Physical Activity Among Those With and Without Established Cardiovascular Disease: 2012 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, Javier Valero‐Elizondo, Joseph A. Salami, Chukwuemeka U. Osondu, et.al., Journal of the American Heart Association, Volume 5(9), e003614, (September 2016). The researchers provide evidence that participants reporting moderate‐vigorous PA generally incurred significantly lower health care expenditures and resource utilization, displaying a step‐wise lower total annual health care expenditure as moving from CVD to non‐CVD (and each CRF category). These estimates suggest the significant potential for health care savings through optimizing PA levels as a mean to favorably impact the increasing burden of CVD and associated costs.
Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition in younger adults: A randomized clinical trial, Yaakov Stern, Anna MacKay-Brandt, Seonjoo Lee, et.al., Neurology, Volume 92(9), (2019). This randomized clinical trial demonstrates the efficacy of aerobic exercise for cognition in adults age 20–67. The effect of aerobic exercise on executive function was more pronounced as age increased, suggesting that it may mitigate age-related declines. Increased cortical thickness suggests that aerobic exercise contributes to brain health in individuals as young as age 20.
The effects of aerobic training on subclinical negative affect: A randomized controlled trial, McIntyre, Kathleen M., Puterman, Eli, Scodes, Jennifer M., et.al., Health Psychology, Volume 39(4), pp.255–264, (2020). In the present study, we test the effects of a 3-month randomized controlled trial of aerobic exercise training in young to midlife adults on trait measures of depression, anxiety, hostility, and anger. At study entry, participants scored low on measures of depression, anxiety, hostility and anger. Analyses among the intent-to-treat and per protocol samples found significant treatment effects of aerobic training for hostility and depression, but not for anxiety and anger. Within-group analyses demonstrated that depression and hostility scores decreased in the exercise group over the course of the intervention, while remaining stable in the control group. These effects persisted for the exercise group at nonsignificant levels after 4 weeks of deconditioning.
The effects of physical activity and exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor in healthy humans: A review. Huang, T., Larsen, K. T., Ried-Larsen, M., et.al.,Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 24, pp.1-10, (2014). The purpose of this study was to summarize the effects of physical activity and exercise on peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in healthy humans. Evidence from experimental studies suggested that peripheral BDNF concentrations were elevated by acute and chronic aerobic exercise. The majority of the studies suggested that strength training had no influence on peripheral BDNF. The results from most observational studies suggested an inverse relationship between the peripheral BDNF level and habitual physical activity or cardiorespiratory fitness. More research is needed to confirm the findings from the observational studies.
Estimating the future burden of cancers preventable by better diet and physical activity in Australia, Baade P, Xingqiong Meng, Craig Sinclair, et.al., Medical Journal of Australia, Volume 196(5), pp.337-340, (2012). The objective of this research was to estimate the number of cancers to be diagnosed in 2025 that could be prevented solely due to changes in diet and physical activity. The authors conclude that about 25% of cancers, or about 43 000 cancers in 2025, can potentially be prevented through improvements in diet and physical activity. It is imperative that governments, clinicians and researchers act now if we are to reduce the significant future human and financial burden of cancer.
Exercise as medicine – evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases, Pedersen B and Saltin B, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 25, Issue Supplement S3, (2015). This review provides an up-to-date evidence-based assessment for prescribing exercise as medicine in the treatment of 26 different diseases: psychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety, stress, schizophrenia); neurological diseases (dementia, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis); metabolic diseases (obesity, hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome, polycystic ovarian syndrome, type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes); cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure, cerebral apoplexy, and claudication intermittent); pulmonary diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, cystic fibrosis); musculo-skeletal disorders (osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, back pain, rheumatoid arthritis); and cancer. The effect of exercise therapy on disease pathogenesis and symptoms are given and the possible mechanisms of action are discussed.
Happier people live more active lives: Using smartphones to link happiness and physical activity, Lathia N, Sandstrom G, Mascolo C, et.al., PLOS One, (4 January 2017). It appears that physical activity, both exercise and non-exercise, has far-reaching benefits to both physical and mental health. This study examined the relationship between physical activity (measured broadly) and happiness using a smartphone application. This app was used to collect self-reports of happiness and physical activity from over ten thousand participants, while passively gathering information about physical activity from the accelerometers on users' phones. The findings reveal that individuals who are more physically active are happier. Further, individuals are happier in the moments when they are more physically active.
How the 2018 US Physical Activity Guidelines are a Call to Promote and Better Understand Acute Physical Activity for Cognitive Function Gains, Yu-Kai Chang, Kirk I. Erickson, Emmanuel Stamatakis, et.al., Sports Medicine, Volume 49(11), pp.1625-1627, (November 2019). The new 2018 edition of the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (PAGA18) released by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [1] and directly informed by the 779-page 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Scientific Report [2] will undoubtedly change how we promote and research physical activity (PA). For the first time, PAGA18 include new insights on the role of a single session of PA for cognitive function and brain health, suggesting that the scientific evidence supporting PA benefits on cognitive function and brain health has matured. In addition, considering the difficulty in initiating and adhering to a long-term exercise program, cognitive function benefits from a single bout may provide a new approach to promote exercise for people who are not ready yet to adopt and adhere to an ongoing habitual exercise routine.
Implementing evidence-based physical activity interventions for people with mental illness: an Australian perspective, Simon Rosenbaum, Anne Tiedemann, Robert Stanton, et.al., Australasian Psychiatry, Volume 24(1), pp.49-54, (2016). Evidence supporting the inclusion of PA programs as an adjunct to treatment for various conditions was presented; including depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and substance abuse. In light of the available evidence, the inclusion of clinical PA programs within mental health treatment, facilitated by dedicated clinicians (exercise physiologists / physiotherapists) was justified.
Interrelation of sport participation, physical activity, social capital and mental health in disadvantaged communities: A SEM-analysis, Marlier M, Van Dyck D, Cardon G, et.al., PLOSOne , (9 October 2015). The present study aims to uncover how sport participation, physical activity, social capital and mental health are interrelated by examining these outcomes in one model. A cross-sectional sample from disadvantaged communities in Antwerp, Belgium were surveyed. Adults, aged 18–56 (N=414) were randomly selected and visited at home to fill out a questionnaire on socio-demographics, sport participation, physical activity, social capital and mental health. This study highlighted the importance of sport participation and individual social capital to improve mental health in disadvantaged communities. It further gives additional insights into the interrelated nature of these factors. Implications for policy are that cross-sector initiatives between the sport and the social and health sectors need to be directly linked to one another.
Is running associated with a lower risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality, and is the more the better? A systematic review and meta-analysis, Zeljko Pedisic, Nipun Shrestha, Stephanie Kovalchik, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 54(15), pp.898-905, (2020). Fourteen studies from six prospective cohorts with a pooled sample of 232 149 participants were included. In total, 25 951 deaths were recorded during 5.5–35 year follow-ups. Our meta-analysis showed that running participation is associated with 27%, 30% and 23% lower risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality, respectively, compared with no running. A meta-regression analysis showed no significant dose–response trends for weekly frequency, weekly duration, pace and the total volume of running. Increased rates of participation in running, regardless of its dose, would probably lead to substantial improvements in population health and longevity. Any amount of running, even just once a week, is better than no running, but higher doses of running may not necessarily be associated with greater mortality benefits.
Is sport enough? Contribution of sport to overall moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity among adolescents, Harriet Koorts, Anna Timperio, Lauren Arundell, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport , Volume 22(10), pp.1119-1124, (2019). Participants (mean 15.3 years, 59% female) spent a mean (SD) of 68.6 (27.4) min/day in MVPA and 50% reported participating in any sport. Those who participated in sport did so 3.4 times/week on average and accumulated 7 min/day of MVPA more than those who did no sport. For each additional sport participated in, on average, there were approximately 5 additional min/day of MVPA. The number and frequency of sports participation explained 3.2% and 3.8% of the variance in MVPA respectively. Participation in field hockey and gymnastics explained 2.2% and 3.6% of the variance in MVPA, respectively. There were no moderating effects. The authors conclude that sport appears to make a very small contribution to adolescents’ average daily physical activity. Effectiveness of approaches to increasing youth population levels of physical activity via sports participation needs to be tested.
Lactate Is an Antidepressant That Mediates Resilience to Stress by Modulating the Hippocampal Levels and Activity of Histone Deacetylases, Nabil Karnib, Rim El-Ghandour, Lauretta El Hayek, et.al., Neuropsychopharmacology, Volume 44(6), pp.1152-1162, (2019). Chronic stress promotes depression in some individuals, but has no effect in others. Susceptible individuals exhibit social avoidance and anxious behavior and ultimately develop depression, whereas resilient individuals live normally. Exercise counteracts the effects of stress. Our objective was to examine whether lactate, a metabolite produced during exercise and known to reproduce specific brain exercise-related changes, promotes resilience to stress and acts as an antidepressant.
Long distance ski racing is associated with lower long-term incidence of depression in a population based, large-scale study, Martina Svensson, Lena Brundin, Sophie Erhardt, et.al., Psychiatry Review, Volume 281, (November 2019). Physical activity has been proposed to be beneficial for prevention of depression, although the importance of exercise intensity, sex-specific mechanisms, and duration of the effects need to be clarified. Using an observational study design, following 395,369 individuals up to 21 years we studied whether participation in an ultralong-distance cross-country ski race was associated with lower risk of developing depression. The risk of depression in skiers was significantly lower, to nearly half of that in non-skiers over the follow-up period. Further, a higher fitness level (measured as the finishing time to complete the race, a proxy for higher exercise dose) was associated with lower incidence of depression in men, but not in women. Our results support the recommendations of engaging in physical activity as a preventive strategy decreasing the risk for depression in both men and women. Furthermore, the exercise could reduce risk for depression in a dose-dependent matter, in particular in males.
Marital Benefits of Daily Individual and Conjoint Exercise Among Older Couples, Jeremy Yorgason, Lee Johnson Melanie Hill, et.al., Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Science, Volume 67(2), pp.227-239, (2018). This article examines daily patterns of exercise among older husbands and wives, as well as how conjoint exercise was related to daily marital functioning outcomes through a sample of 191 older couples included as part of a broader study. Results indicate that individual exercise on a given day was associated with more positive marital events and higher daily marital satisfaction; patterns in these results were more consistent for wives than for husbands. Conjoint exercise on a given day was also associated with nearly all marital outcomes for both husbands and wives.
Midlife cardovascular fitness and dementia: a 44-year longitudinal population study in women, Helena Hörder, Lena Johansson, XinXin Guo, et.al., Neurology, Volume 90(15), (2018). Among Swedish women, a high cardiovascular fitness in midlife was associated with a decreased risk of subsequent dementia. Promotion of a high cardiovascular fitness may be included in strategies to mitigate or prevent dementia. Findings are not causal, and future research needs to focus on whether improved fitness could have positive effects on dementia risk and when during the life course a high cardiovascular fitness is most important.
Modeling the economic and health impact of increasing children’s physical activity in the United States, Lee B, Adam A, Zenkov E, et.al., ;Health Affairs, Volume 36(5), pp.,902-908, (2017). Quantifying the economic and health effects of physical activity intervention programs would help decision makers understand its impact and priority. Using a computational simulation model developed to represent all US children ages 8–11 years, this study estimated that maintaining the current physical activity levels (only 31.9% of children in the U.S. get twenty-five minutes of high-calorie-burning physical activity three times a week) would result each year in a net present value of $1.1 trillion in direct medical costs and $1.7 trillion in lost productivity over the course of their lifetimes. If 50% of children would exercise, the number of obese and overweight youth would decrease by 4.18%, averting $8.1 billion in direct medical costs and $13.8 billion in lost productivity; increasing the proportion of children who exercised to 75% would avert $16.6 billion and $23.6 billion, respectively.
Overweight and obese men’s experiences in a sport-based weight loss intervention for men, Timothy Budden, James A. Dimmock, Brett Smith, et.al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 50, 101750, (2020). The authors explored men’s experiences of a male-only competitive sport-based weight loss program. Men highlighted competition, accountability, and camaraderie as driving positive outcomes. Being around likeminded and similar men makes the program attractive to overweight and obese men. Sport and competition allows men to offset ‘un-masculine’ behaviours (e.g., non-drinking). Highlights the potential of leveraging competition/masculinity to drive healthy behaviour.
The participation in organised sport doubles the odds of meeting physical activity recommendations in 7–12-year-old children, Kerli Mooses, Merike Kull, European Journal of Sport Sciences, Volume 20(4), pp.563-569, (2020). The purpose of this study was to determine the contributing role of organised sport participation to daily physical activity (PA) and to describe the PA during training. Children aged 7–12 wore the accelerometer for 1 week. Children with activity data for a minimum of 5 days were included in the analysis (n = 492). More than half (52.5%) of the children participated in an organised sport at least once a week. Participation in organised sport three or more times a week increased the odds of meeting PA recommendations. On average, children acquired 23.3 ± 15.3 min of moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) during trainings, while boys accrued more MVPA minutes compared to girls and the training time MVPA decreased with age, respectively. Each additional MVPA minute during training increased daily MVPA by 1.3 min. On days with training children accumulated 24.9 more MVPA minutes compared to days without training. In conclusion, these findings highlight the importance of organised sport in supporting the PA levels of children. However, participation in the organised sport only is not sufficient to meet PA recommendations, and therefore, PA should be supported throughout the day.
Physical activity and annual medical outlay in U.S. colorectal, breast and prostate cancer survivors, Alice F. Yan, Yang Wang, Alexander V. Ng, Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 9, pp.118-123, (2018). Analysis of both physical activity behaviour and health care expenditure for individuals with select cancer locations demonstrated that higher levels of physical activity could provide a significant reduction in health expenditure. Expenditure in adherence group was $9108.8 pa (95% CI 7410.9–10,806.7) versus 12,899.1 pa (95% CI 11,450.2–14,348) in non-adherence group. Stratified analyses revealed cancer survivors who adhered to their PA recommendation saved $4686.1 (1–5 years' survival time) and $2874.5 (11 or more years' survival time) on average pa for total health care expenditure, respectively. These findings have implications for both individuals and governments in relation to potential savings in health expenditure for patients with cancer, and potentially other diseases.
Physical activity and depression in men: Increased activity duration and intensity associated with lower likelihood of current depression, Dianne Currier, Remy Lindner, Matthew Spittal, Journal of Affective Disorders, Volume 260, pp.426-431, (2020). In adult men, meeting minimum recommendations is associated with lower current depression. Increased duration and greater intensity of activity were both associated with further reduction in prevalence. Promoting higher levels of physical activity is potentially an intervention for improving men's mental wellbeing.
Physical activity and exercise as a universal depression prevention in young people: A narrative review, Michaela C. Pascoe Alexandra G. Parker, Early Intervention in Psychiatry, Volume 13(4), pp.733-739, (2019). The studies reviewed demonstrate a bidirectional relationship between physical activity, exercise and adolescent mental health. The results of the current review suggest that physical activity and exercise programs designed to increase the level of activity in young people should be implemented to be attractive and achievable to young people that may have poor psychological health.
Physical activity and health in adolescence, Kumar B, Robinson R and Till S, Clinical Medicine, Volume 15(3), pp.267-272, (2015). Adolescence represents a critical period of development during which personal lifestyle choices and behaviour patterns are established, including the choice to be physically active. This article reviews the literature on physical activity (PA), health, and physical fitness, and makes a number of observations; including:
- The proportion of active individuals declines significantly in adolescence, with girls tending to be less active than boys.
- Studies indicate continuous periods of sedentariness pose more potent health risks than obesity.
- If everyone (in the population) had a ‘moderate’ level of cardio-respiratory fitness, overall mortality would be reduced by about 17%, whereas if no one were obese, the risk reduction would be approximately 2–3%.
- There is an inverse correlation between PA and all-cause mortality. Regular PA in youth improves cardiovascular physiology, including blood pressure, lipid profile, insulin sensitivity and endothelial function.
- The authors advocate a PA ‘prescription’ for all young people as part of their individual healthcare plan.
Physical activity and exercise in youth mental health promotion: a scoping review, Michaela Pascoe, Alan Bailey, Melinda Craike, et.al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 6(1), (2020). Thirty publications were included. Available evidence suggested that interventions of varying intensity may lead to a reduction in depression symptoms and that moderate-to-vigorous-intensity and light-intensity interventions may reduce anxiety symptoms. Effects of physical activity/exercise interventions on additional mental health outcomes were also shown; however, the number of studies was small, indicating a limited evidence base. Robust research regarding the effects of physical activity/exercise on mental health promotion and as an indicated prevention strategy in young people is lacking.
Physical activity and incident chronic diseases: A longitudinal observational study in 16 European countries, de Souto Barreto P, Cesari M, Andrieu S, et.al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 52(3), pp.373-378, (2017). This study examined a large sample of people from 16 European countries to determine the predictive value of physical activity frequency and intensity on the incidence of heart diseases, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and various types of cancer. This study concluded that doing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity at least once a week (which is less than current recommendations in terms of frequency) is associated with reduced risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and diabetes among middle-aged and older adults. In addition, the magnitude of the associations increased with higher frequencies (i.e. more than once per week) for both moderate and vigorous physical activity.
Physical Activity and Incident Depression: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies, Felipe Schuch, Davy Vancampfort, Joseph Firth, et.al., American Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 175(7), pp.631-648, (2018). This study concludes that available evidence supports the notion that physical activity can confer protection against the emergence of depression regardless of age and geographical region. A total of 49 unique prospective studies were identified. Compared with people with low levels of physical activity, those with high levels had lower odds of developing depression. Furthermore, physical activity had a protective effect against the emergence of depression in youths, adults, and elderly persons. Protective effects against depression were found across geographical regions, with adjusted odds ratios ranging from 0.65 to 0.84 in Asia, Europe, North America, and Oceania, and against increased incidence of positive screen for depressive symptoms or major depression diagnosis. No moderators were identified.
Physical activity and mental well-being in a cohort aged 60–64 years, Black S, Cooper R, Martin K, et.al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 49(2), pp.172-180, (2015). This study investigated the associations between physical activity in the form of walking for pleasure with mental wellbeing in a large sample of men and women age 60–64 years. The results showed that participation in walking for pleasure was associated with higher levels of mental wellbeing. Associations were robust when adjustment for gender, long-term limiting illness, educational attainment, financial status, smoking, work status, and personality were considered.
Physical Activity as an Investment in Personal and Social Change: The Human Capital Model, Richard Bailey, Charles Hillman, Shawn Arent, et.al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 9(8), pp.1053-1055, (2012). The comprehensive benefits of sports and physical activity are underestimated today. This model shows the surprising spectrum of benefits of physical activity to an individual and economy. Each “capital” [Intellectual; Financial; Physical; Social; Individual; Emotional] defines a set of resources that underpin our well-being and success.
Physical Activity from Childhood to Adulthood and Cognitive Performance in Midlife, Hakala, Juuso O., Suvi Rovio, Katja Pahkala, et.al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 51(5), pp.882-890, (2019). This study investigated the association between PA from childhood to adulthood and midlife cognitive performance. Cumulative exposure to PA from childhood to adulthood was found to be associated with better midlife reaction time. Furthermore, cumulative PA exposure in young adulthood and adulthood was associated with better visual processing and sustained attention in men. All associations were independent of participants PA level in other measured age frames. Therefore, a physically active lifestyle should be adopted already in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood and continued into midlife to ensure the plausible benefits of PA on midlife cognitive performance.
Preventing dementia by promoting physical activity and the long-term impact on health and social care expenditures, van Baal P, Hoogendoom M and Fischer A, Preventive Medicine, Volume 85, pp.78-83, (2016). Promoting physical activity in the English middle-aged (ages 40 to 65 years) population has the potential to improve population health and increase life expectancy. This research constructed an economic model to estimate the financial benefit to health and social care costs in England. The aim was to determine if preventing or delaying dementia by promoting physical activity could improve population health and reduce government expenditure. It was estimated that if the English population aged 40 to 65 were to meet the recommended physical activity guidelines, life expectancy would increase by 0.23 years and health and social care expenditure would decrease by £400 per person.
Physical exercise and cognitive function across the life span: Results of a nationwide population-based study, Beate Gaertner, Amanda K. Buttery, Jonas D. Fingeret.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 21(5), pp.489-494, (2018). In this large, nationwide population-based study of adults aged 18–79 years in Germany, more hours of physical exercise per week were associated with better executive function and memory in cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis with no evidence for differential effects by age, indicating consistent associations across the adult life span. These findings support public health interventions to increase physical activity to preserve and potentially improve cognitive health over the lifespan. Future studies on physical activity and cognitive function should include broad age ranges and long-term follow-up to maximise understanding of effective interventions across the lifecourse.
Reduced telomere shortening in lifelong trained male football players compared to age-matched inactive controls, Marie Hagman, Christian Werner, Katharina Kamp. et.al., Progress in Cadiovascular Diseases, Volume 63(6), pp.738-749, (2020). Current evidence points to cellular anti-ageing effects of regular endurance training which may differ from other sport modalities. Effects of football training on markers of cell senescence have not been tested. This study is the first cross-sectional, controlled trial showing effects of lifelong football participation on telomere shortening and senescence markers in circulating cells, suggesting that football induces cellular anti-senescence mechanisms implying positive long-term cardiovascular health effects.
Relationship between weight status and cognition in children: A mediation analysis of physical fitness components, Abel Ruiz-Hermosa, Jorge Mota, Ana Díez-Fernández, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 38(1), pp.13-20, (2020). Cross-sectional study aimed to analyse differences in cognitive performance across fitness components categories (cardiorespiratory fitness [CRF], speed-agility and muscular fitness [MF]) and weight status in children, and to determine whether physical fitness mediates the association between body mass index (BMI) and cognitive performance. Children with normal weight scored better in spatial factor and general intelligence than their overweight/obese peers (p < 0.05), but differences were attenuated when controlling for CRF (p > 0.05). Children with better results in CRF and speed-agility scored better in all cognitive dimensions even after controlling for BMI (p < 0.05). Similarly, children with high MF obtained better scores in verbal factor (p < 0.05). All fitness components acted as mediators of the relationship between BMI and general intelligence (p < 0.05). These findings highlight the crucial role of fitness in minimising the negative effect of excess weight on children’s cognition.
Should toddlers and preschoolers participate in organized sport? A scoping review of developmental outcomes associated with young children’s sport participation, Meghan Harlow, Lauren Wolman and Jessica Fraser-Thomas, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Volume 13(1), pp.40-64, (2020). Organized sport is offered at increasingly younger ages, with many programs geared towards preschoolers, toddlers, and infants. While sport is promoted as an amendable context for healthy development of school-age children, little is empirically known about potential benefits or risks associated with organized sport participation in early childhood. A scoping review of nine electronic databases identified English-language, peer-reviewed, original research articles which addressed psychological, emotional, social, cognitive, or intellectual developmental outcomes of organized sport involvement of children aged 2–5 years; included studies were appraised for quality. Findings offer preliminary evidence that early sport participation is related to primarily positive outcomes (e.g. enhanced social skills, pro-social behaviours, self-regulation), while negative and inconclusive outcomes were also identified. Results suggest limited existing research has primarily relied on parent or teacher proxy-report or assessment, and reinforces that little is known about toddler and preschooler organized sport participation as a distinct form of physical activity, despite pervasive availability of programming, and positive parental perceptions of early enrolment.
Sitting Time, Physical Activity, and Risk of Mortality in Adults, Emmanuel Stamatakis, Joanne Gale, Adrian Bauman, et.al., Journal of the American College of Cardiology, Volume 73(16), pp.2062-2072, (2019). The purpose of this study was to examine the joint and stratified associations of sitting and moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) with all-cause and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality, and to estimate the theoretical effect of replacing sitting time with physical activity, standing, and sleep. The results indicate that sitting is associated with all-cause and CVD mortality risk among the least physically active adults; moderate-to-vigorous physical activity doses equivalent to meeting the current recommendations attenuate or effectively eliminate such associations.
Treating depression with physical activity in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials, A. P. Bailey, S. E. Hetrick, S. Rosenbaum, et.al., Psychological Medicine, Volume 48(7), pp.1068-1083, (2018). We aimed to establish the treatment effect of physical activity for depression in young people through meta-analysis. Four databases were searched to September 2016 for randomised controlled trials of physical activity interventions for adolescents and young adults, 12–25 years, experiencing a diagnosis or threshold symptoms of depression. While physical activity appears to be a promising and acceptable intervention for adolescents and young adults experiencing depression, robust clinical effectiveness trials that minimise risk of bias are required to increase confidence in the current finding. The specific intervention characteristics required to improve depression remain unclear, however best candidates given current evidence may include, but are not limited to, supervised, aerobic-based activity of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, engaged in multiple times per week over eight or more weeks. Further research is needed.
What about sport? A public health perspective on leisure-time physical activity, Berg B, Warner S and Das B, Sport Management Review, Volume 18(1), pp.20-31, (2015). In an effort to determine how sport could be better positioned on the public health agenda, three community physical activity programs aimed at combating obesity were examined to determine the benefits residents seek through their participation. The results reveal that new approaches need to be considered for promoting greater levels of participation in U.S. community sport and other leisure-time physical activity programs. Instead of the commonly emphasized benefits of physical health or appearance, the results demonstrate that hedonic rewards and opportunities for social interaction are two overlooked, yet primary benefits sought by participants. This research suggests that concerted efforts to focus on the hedonic feelings and social aspects can potentially lead to increased sport participation and holistic health. Such an approach may help better address vital public health policy issues while demonstrating the distinctiveness and utility of sport.

Videos

Licencing restrictions apply to some resources.

All Clearinghouse members 'Australian' members only
'High Performance' members only Restricted access Various restrictions

23 and ½ hours: What is the single best thing we can do for our health? Dr. Mike Evans, YouTube, (2 December 2011). Dr Evans is an Associate Professor of Family Medicine and Public Health at the University of Toronto, Canada, and a staff physician at St. Michael's Hospital.
Preventative Health: Healthy People through Sport, Dr Douglas William Bettcher and Dr Godfrey Xuereb, World Health Organisation, Smart Talk Seminar Series, Australian Institute of Sport, (2 April 2013).

Life stages

No matter what your age, being physically active and limiting your sedentary behaviour every day is essential for health and wellbeing.

Babies
Physical activity recommendations for children under 1 year of age.

Toddlers
Physical activity recommendations for children aged 1-2 years of age.

Pre-school
Physical activity recommendations and behaviours for children aged 3-5 years.

Children and youth
Physical activity recommendations and behaviours for children and youth aged 5-17 years.

Adults
Physical activity recommendations and behaviours for adults aged 18-64 years.

Older (65+)
Physical activity recommendations and behaviours for adults aged 65 years and over.

Physical activity guidelines, policies and strategies

Australian guidelines and reports

Guidelines

Australia's Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines and the Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines, Department of Health. These guidelines are supported by a rigorous evidence review process, based on the best available evidence relating to the relationship between physical activity (i.e. amount, frequency, intensity and type of physical activity) and health outcome indicators (i.e. risk of chronic disease and obesity), and the relationship between sedentary behaviour (i.e. sitting or lying down for extended periods, except when sleeping) and health outcome indicators.

Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years (birth-5 years) an integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep, Commonwealth of Australia, (2019). Being physically active every day is important for the healthy growth and development of infants, toddlers and pre-schoolers. These recommendations are for all children aged 0-5 years who have not yet started school, irrespective of cultural background, gender or ability.
Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Young People (5-17 years) an integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep, Commonwealth of Australia, (2019). Being physically active is good for kids’ health and creates opportunities for making new friends and developing physical and social skills. These guidelines are for all children aged 5-12 years who have started school, irrespective of cultural background, gender or ability.
Make your Move – Sit less – Be active for life!, Australia’s Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines for Adults 18-64 years, Commonwealth of Australia, (2014). Being physically active and limiting your sedentary behaviour every day is essential for health and wellbeing. These guidelines are for all adults aged 18 – 64 years, irrespective of cultural background, gender or ability.
Choose Health: Be Active - A physical activity guide for older Australians, Physical Activity Recommendations for Older Australians 65 years and older, Commonwealth of Australia, (2008). Being physically active and staying fit and healthy will help you to get the most out of life, whatever your age. These recommendations are designed to help older Australians achieve sufficient physical activity for good health as they age. They are mainly for people who are not currently building 30 minutes of physical activity into their daily lives, and are looking for ways they can do so.
Is your family missing out on the benefits of being active every day? Make your Move - Sit less - Be active for life!, Commonwealth of Australia, (2014). This publication provides information about the benefits to families of being physically active, and offers steps that every family can take towards better health.

Reports

Active Healthy Kids Australia (AHKA) Report Cards. Produced biennially the AHKA Report Cards synthesises the best available Australian evidence in order to assign grades to physical activity indicators, and provides a national snap shot of the current levels of physical activity in Australian children and young people. A Global Matrix also allows the results to be benchmarked against other countries to help identify areas of strength and weakness. Since the first Report Card in 2014 Australia has had an assessed grade of 'D-' for physical activity. The most recent report was released in December 2018.
Australia’s Health 2020, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Catalogue Number AUS 231, (2020). Every two years the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) compiles a national report card on the health of Australians. A comprehensive range of health metrics are reported, including population statistics on bodyweight (e.g. underweight, normal, overweight and obese) and compliance with physical activity guidelines. In 2017-18, two-thirds (67%) of Australians aged 18 and over, and one-quarter (25%) of children aged 5–17 were overweight or obese. Based on self-reported data from the 2017–18 National Health Survey, an estimated 1 in 2 adults (55%) did not participate in sufficient physical activity. Women were more likely than men to be insufficiently active (59% compared with 50%).
- Australia’s Health 2018, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Catalogue Number AUS 221, (2018). Almost two-thirds (63%) of Australians aged 18 and over, and more than one-quarter (28%) of children aged 5–17 are overweight or obese. Overweight and obesity, when considered together with insufficient physical activity, is estimated to account for 9% of the total disease burden in Australia—the same as tobacco smoking (the leading risk factor). An extra 15 minutes of brisk walking by each person 5 days a week could cut Australia’s disease burden due to insufficient physical activity by about 14%. If this time rose to 30 minutes, the burden could be reduced by 26%.
Insufficient physical activity, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, (20 October 2020). Participating in regular physical activity provides many benefits for physical and mental health at all ages, and can also help manage biomedical risk factors such as high body weight, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Insufficient physical activity is a key risk factor contributing to disease burden in Australia. Given it plays a role in chronic conditions, it is important for Australians to achieve the levels of activity outlined in Australia’s Physical Activity and Sedentary behaviour guidelines. Findings from this report: 15% of adults met both the physical activity and muscle strengthening activity guidelines in 2017–18; In 2017–18, 23% of adults met the muscle strengthening activity guidelines (22% of women and 25% of men); 17% of 2–5 year olds met the physical activity and screen-based behaviour guidelines on 7 days in 2011–12; 1 in 2 adults (55%) did not meet the physical activity guidelines in 2017–18.
Muscle strengthening activities among Australian adults - In focus, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, (3 September 2020). The report showed that: In 2017-18, around 4 in 10 Australian adults aged 18-64 did MSA on at least 2 days a week, as per Australia’s physical activity guidelines. Younger adults and men were generally more likely to meet the MSA guideline than older adults and women. The most popular activities included gym workouts, running, swimming and cycling for both men and women.
Older Australians at a glance, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Catalogue Number AGE 87, (10 September 2018). This report provides an overview of this diverse and growing population group through a range of topics. These outline older people’s demographic characteristics, health status, and service use. Older people make up a considerable proportion of Australia’s population—in 2017, over 1 in 7 people were aged 65 and over. 7 in 10 older people are overweight or obese and only 2 in 5 reported being sufficiently active during the preceding week.
Physical activity across the life stages, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, (2018). This report presents information on the physical activity and sedentary participation rate of Australians across the life stages, reported against Australia’s Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines. According to the most recent available data, 30% of children aged 2–17 and 44% of adults aged 18 and over met the physical activity guidelines. Most children exceeded the recommended amount of sedentary screen-based activity time, while the amount of time spent sitting at leisure increased in adults as aged increased.
Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour: Research and Statistics, Department of Health Australia, (last updated 21 November 2017). This page contains scientific evidence review reports and key facts and figures regarding physical activity and sedentary behaviour.
Physical Activity During COVID-19 Lock-Down: insights into Australian's physical activity and fitness during the COVID-19 shut-down, Gemba, (29 April 2020). Despite the visible signs of families cycling, walking and running through the suburbs, 44% of Australians are doing less physical activity now than before the Coronavirus lockdown. A quarter of Australians have taken up a new form of exercise during the lockdown, and many are embracing online fitness – especially women and under-30s. There is not an obvious correlation between increased physical activity and whether or not someone is finding the lockdown challenging for their mental health.
Report Card, the wellbeing of young Australians, Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth, (2018). The third report comparing the status of Australian children and youth (ages 5 to 24 years) against the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations, and notes trends over time. In the 'Health' section the report states that 31.6 per cent of Australian children and youth are overweight or obese and 56.2 per cent do not achieve the recommended level of daily physical activity.

Australian strategies and policies

Australia: the Healthiest Country by 2020, Australian Government, National Preventive Health Taskforce, Department of Health and Aging, (2009). Interventions that address behavioral change are a central part of the Government’s preventative health strategy. Seven strategic directions are identified: (1) shared responsibility at all levels of government and developing strategic partnerships with non-government sectors; (2) acting early and throughout life with intervention programs; (3) engaging communities in settings where they live, work, play, and go to school; (4) influencing markets; (5) reducing inequity, (6) Indigenous Australians, and; (7) refocus of primary healthcare towards prevention.
- Taking preventive action, a response to 'Australia: the Healthiest Country by 2020', Commonwealth Government, (2010). This report proposes a phased approach to the implementation of recommended actions. The first phase of four years initiates priority actions; the second phase builds on these actions, learning from new research and the experiences of program implementation and trials; and the third phase ensures long-term sustained action.
Sport 2030, Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health, (2018). Sport 2030 is the vision and the plan for sport and physical activity in Australia over the next 12 years to be delivered in partnership with Australia’s sporting, physical activity, technology, education and corporate community. A key goal of the plan s to 'build a more active Australia' through 'reducing inactivity amongst Australians by 15% by 2030.

Healthy Canberra: ACT Preventive Health Plan 2020–2025, Australian Capital Territory Government, (2019). We are committed to supporting all Canberrans to make healthy lifestyle choices and to take the steps needed to prevent disease. We recognise that actions by the health sector alone will not be enough to meet this challenge. That’s why we'll be delivering the Healthy Canberra: ACT Preventive Health Plan 2020–2025 in partnership with a wide range of stakeholders. This includes non-government organisations, communities, other government agencies, industry and researchers. The plan outlines five areas we’re focusing on to achieve this: supporting children and families; enabling active living; increasing healthy eating; reducing risky behaviours; promoting healthy ageing.
First Three Year Action Plan, Australian Capital Territory Government, (2019). The Action Plan articulates areas for government-led action to support children and families; enable active living; increase healthy eating; reduce risky behaviours; and promote healthy ageing. Implementation of the actions under the Action Plan will be the shared responsibility of all ACT Government Directorates, facilitated by the ACT Health Directorate. There is a strong focus on active transport and providing diverse opportunities for people in the ACT to get active, including sport.

Premier's Priority: Reduce overweight and obesity rates of children by 5% over 10 years, NSW Government, (October 2016). The Strategy is a comprehensive whole-of-government plan which includes a focus on:
- State-wide healthy eating and active living support programs;
- Healthy eating and active living advice and support as part of clinical service delivery;
- Education and information to enable informed, healthy choices; and
- Environments to support healthy eating and active living.

Activate! Queensland 2019–2029, Queensland Government, (2019). A 10 year strategy to further enrich the Queensland way of life; harnessing the pride of our great sporting traditions, embracing our iconic natural environment and building on our strong community foundations to deliver better health and wellbeing outcomes, especially for those most vulnerable.Achieving the aims of Activate! Queensland will take a shared vision and united government investment. The strategy is a foundational reform for investment, aligning delivery of physical activity to achieve key targets and tackling major challenges with a strong sense of purpose, focus and commitment. Whole-of-government investment will see improvements in physical activity opportunities across a diverse range of areas.

Game On: Getting South Australia moving (Game On), South Australian Office of Recreation, Sport and Racing, (2020). A forward-looking framework that outlines a collaborative approach to ensure physical activity and play can fit seamlessly into the daily lives of South Australians. Game On also seeks to provide a shared vision and common platform for the sport and recreation sector in South Australia.
Recreation, Sport and Racing Strategic Plan 2021-2025. This Strategic Plan provides a blueprint for the next five years to contribute to our vision to create an Active State, connected communities and to inspire performance. We should not underestimate the scale of the challenge, but we should also see this as an opportunity and the beginning of an exciting new journey.

Healthy Tasmania: Five year strategic plan, Department of Health and Human Services, Tasmanian Government, (July 2016). To promote better health, the State Government launched the Healthy Tasmania Five Year Strategic Plan to give Tasmanians and their communities the information and tools they need to make healthy changes in their lives.

Quit campaign
Tobacco Control Laws
Smoke Free Young People
Student Health Initiative
Healthy Kids Toolkit
Healthy Tasmania Challenge, Active Every Day and Neighbour Day
LiveLighter
WorkSafe Tasmania healthy workplaces information
Healthy Tasmanian Communities Innovation Grants
Active Ageing Plan

Healthy Tasmania Five Year Report 2016-2021. This report highlights the achievements of Healthy Tasmania from 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2021.

More information is also available on the Healthy Tasmania website.

Tasmania's plan for physical activity 2011-2021, Premier’s Physical Activity Council, (2011). A long-term plan for all of Tasmania. Prepared by the Premier’s Physical Activity Council, in consultation with many other Tasmanians interested in physical activity, it sets a unifying direction and framework for action. The plan is for anyone involved in physical activity, whether as a participant, promoter, provider, researcher, policy maker or funder.

Active Victoria 2022-2026 – A strategic framework for sport and active recreation in Victoria. The refreshed Active Victoria 2022-2026 outlines six priority outcomes that we are working towards. These include:
- Increasing equitable participation in sport and active recreation
- Delivering quality infrastructure that is accessible, respectful and inclusive
- Building the capability of the sport and active recreation workforce
- Implementing good governance practices to ensure a safe and sustainable sector
- Supporting a pipeline of sporting events within the Victorian events calendar
- Encouraging Victorians to achieve success at the highest level through high performance.

Victorian public health and wellbeing plan 2019–2023, Victorian State Government, (2019). The Victorian public health and wellbeing plan 2019–2023 sets the direction and provides a framework for coordinated action, ensuring Victorians of all ages are afforded the opportunity for optimal health and wellbeing so they can participate fully in their community, in education and/or in employment. A key focus area is 'increasing active living' including a focus on increasing active travel; easy access to parks, open and public spaces for physical activity; and integrating healthy lifestyle counselling and referrals within routine health care services.
Physical Activity Strategy 2019-2023, VicHealth, (2018). Aims to increase the number of Victorians who are physically active – making being active part of everyday life. Key foci of the strategy are children aged 5-12 years; young people aged 12-17 years; and women and girls.

Western Australian Health Promotion Strategic Framework, Government of Western Australia, Department of Health. The goal of the HPSF is to empower and enable Western Australians to lead healthier lives by supporting equitable and sustainable improvements in health behaviours and environments.

Sport and Recreation Strategy, Penrith City Council [AUS]. The strategy has been divided into timeframes for delivery including, short term (1-5 years), medium term (6-10 years) and long term (10-15 years). It includes a program of work to deliver 82 projects valued at $125 million in the first five years.

Position Statements and policy papers

Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) position statement on exercise and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Norman. R. Morris, Kylie Hill, James Walsh, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, (31 August 2020). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) results in airflow obstruction and a marked reduction in exercise capacity and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Affecting over 1 in four Australians aged over 75 years, COPD remains one of the major causes of disability and death in the world. To date there have been over 80 randomised controlled trials examining the role of exercise training in a range of settings for individuals with COPD. This review will synthesise existing literature and provide health practitioners with broad evidence-based guidelines for exercise-training in this growing population.
Getting Australia Active III: A systems approach to physical activity for policy makers, Bellew B, Nau T, Smith B, Bauman A (Eds.), The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre and The University of Sydney, (April 2020). GAA III provides design specifications on effective policies and programs across eight policy domains, guidance on priority investments, case studies, and links to online resources. This guide provides action-oriented guidance for policy makers to support the implementation of a WSA to PA in Australia. It has been developed by the Australian Systems Approaches to Physical Activity (ASAPa) project. The ASAPa is a national initiative funded by the
Australian Government’s Medical Research Future Fund to map policies, programs and prevalence metrics at state, territory and federal level; thereafter we hope this work will inform a systems-focused policy framework for PA in Australia. Some key summaries relevant to this topic are:
- The co-benefits of physical activity promotion (2020). Promoting physical activity is relevant to every sector as it would result in social, economic and environmental co-benefits. Physical activity is a best buy for society as a whole, addressing physical inactivity should be a societal and cross-sectoral priority. Thinking of the bigger picture and communicating the co-benefits of physical activity to other sectors helps provide a core rationale for cross-sectoral strategies and partnerships.
- Whole-of-systems approaches to physical activity (2020). Physical inactivity is a complex problem and there are no simple, single solutions. A whole-of systems approach highlights the inter-relationships, interactions and various perspectives in the systems that influence physical activity. It helps policy makers understand how different parts of the systems work and interact, and how and where to intervene to improve physical activity.
- Community-wide programs and physical activity (2020). Physical activity in populations is influenced by multiple factors at multiple levels, including individual, interpersonal, organisational, environmental and policy factors. Community-wide programs to promote physical activity must use a mix of coordinated strategies to address these multilevel determinants. Evidence-based actions derive from the other seven domains described in Getting Australia Active III (GAA III).
Exercise medicine in cancer management: Exercise and Sports Science Australia position statement, Exercise and Sport Science Australia, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 22(11), pp.1175-1199, (November 2019). This document represents ESSA’s exercise and cancer position statement and has the purpose of guiding individualised, targeted exercise prescription to cancer patients through the application of evidence, clinical experience and exercise principles.
COSA Position Statement on Exercise in Cancer Care, Clinical Oncology Society of Australia (COSA), (October 2019). This document outlines the position of COSA with respect to exercise recommendations, taking into account the strengths and limitations of the epidemiological and clinical trials evidence base. COSA recommends that:
- All people with cancer should avoid inactivity and return to normal daily activities as soon as possible following diagnosis (i.e. be as physically active as current abilities and conditions allow)
- All people with cancer should progress towards and, once achieved, maintain participation in: at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise (e.g. walking, jogging, cycling, swimming) each week; and two to three resistance exercise (i.e. lifting weights) sessions each week involving moderate to vigorous-intensity exercises targeting the major muscle groups.
- Exercise recommendations should be tailored to the individual’s abilities noting that specific exercise programming adaptations may be required for people with cancer based on disease and treatment-related adverse effects, anticipated disease trajectory and their health status
- Accredited exercise physiologists and physiotherapists are the most appropriate health professionals to prescribe and deliver exercise programs to people with cancer.
- All health professionals involved in the care of people with cancer have an important role in promoting these recommendations
A Healthier Start for Victorians, VicHealth, (July 2019). This consensus statement outlines practical recommendations to the Victorian Government to turn the tide on obesity. The focus is on children and young people to give them the best chance for a healthier start to life. Key actions relating to physical activity include: Engage and support local communities to develop and lead their own healthy eating and physical activity initiatives; Support schools to increase students’ physical activity and physical literacy; and, Develop and implement a strategy to get Victorians walking more.
Sport Participation and Play: How to Get More Australians Moving, Westerbeek, H, Eime, R, Biddle, S, et.al., Mitchell Institute, Victoria University, (April 2019). This paper responds to, and proposes policy objectives and strategies to support effective implementation of, the aims of Sport 2030, Australia’s first national sports plan, which was released in mid-2018 and is described as “a comprehensive plan to reshape the face of Australian sport and build a healthier, more physically active nation”. Sport 2030 recognises that participation in ‘sport for all’ is a significant challenge that is important to the health of the nation as well as to pathways to elite sport.
Active school travel: pathways to a healthy future, Australian Health Policy Collaboration, (January 2019). This policy paper is the work of a national collaboration of leading experts, researchers and practitioners working in health, education, transport, public health and policy. This three-part policy framework will support and encourage 3.7 million Australian school children, their families, carers and communities to be supported and participate in active travel to and from school.
Blueprint for an active Australia (third edition), National Heart Foundation of Australia, (2019). The third edition of the Blueprint for an Active Australia outlines the case for change for a more physically active Australia. The evidence and interventions presented in the second edition have been expanded and updated across thirteen action areas. The recommended initiatives contained in the action areas represent an investment in improving the health of Australians and contributing to reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease and range of other chronic diseases. The action areas identified are: (1) built environments; (2) workplaces; (3) Health care; (4) Active travel; (5) Prolonged sitting (sedentary behaviour); (6) sport and active recreation; (7) Disadvantaged populations; (8) Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples; (9) Children and adolescents; (10) Older people; (11) Financial measures; (12) Mass-media strategy; (13) Research and program evaluation.
Consensus Statement on the Role of Accredited Exercise Physiologists in the Treatment of Cancer: A Guide for All Health Professionals Involved in the Care of People with Cancer, Exercise and Sport Science Australia (ESSA), (2019). This consensus statement has been developed in consultation with Accredited Exercise Physiologists (AEPs) with expertise in cancer care and oncology specialists representing disciplines involved with the multidisciplinary cancer care team. The statement aims to: define the scope and capacity of AEP services in cancer care; provide insight as to how AEPs can contribute to the multidisciplinary cancer team; raise awareness of the role of AEPs in cancer care; » inform health professionals how to access AEP services; and, outline the impact of AEP interventions for people with cancer.
Consensus Statement on the Role of Accredited Exercise Physiologists in the Treatment of Cancer: A Guide for All Health Professionals Involved in the Care of People with Cancer (for consumers), Exercise and Sport Science Australia (ESSA) , (2019). This consensus statement has been developed by experts and talks about how including an Accredited Exercise Physiologist (AEP) in your cancer care team can help you improve your physical and mental health and wellbeing before, during and after your cancer treatment.
Exercise and Sport Science Australia Position Stand Update on Exercise and Hypertension, James Sharman, Neil Smart, Jeff Coombes, et.al., Journal of Human Hypertension, Volume 33, pp.837-843, (2019). Recent evidence has conﬁrmed exercise is an effective adjunct therapy for hypertension management and the objective of this document is to provide a contemporary, evidence-based guide for optimal delivery of an exercise programme for blood pressure management. This work is an update to the 2009 Exercise and Sport Science Australia (ESSA) position stand.
Parks and Leisure Australia and Partners Advocacy Messages, Parks and Leisure Australia, (2019). We are the People behind the Places that encourage healthy and active communities. The planners, the architects and custodians of Australia’s parks, bushlands, gardens, sports facilities, leisure centres and trails. We are concerned about the poor health of our nation. We need to rethink our approach to addressing obesity and physical inactivity. Parks and Leisure Australia argues there is a need for a bigger investment in the future health of Australians.
Policy position statement: Physical Activity and Mental Health, Public Health Association Australia, (September 2018). Physical inactivity may be considered a risk factor for a variety of mental illnesses including depression, anxiety and age-related cognitive decline. Physical activity interventions may form a part of treatment for these mental illnesses, as well as having general health benefits. With rates of physical inactivity rising globally, there may be implications for rising rates of mental illness.
Physical Activity Policy, Public Health Association Australia, (October 2017). Regular physical activity reduces the risk of all-cause mortality and is a cost-effective way to prevent and manage a wide range of non-communicable diseases. Benefits are physiological, social, environmental and economic. Sedentary behaviours, including prolonged sitting, may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity and some cancers. Intersectoral action is needed to promote physical activity and reduce sedentary behaviour.
Physical Activity, Australian Medical Association, Position Statement, (2014). While physical activity forms part of the body’s energy balance equation, all too often the benefits of physical activity are only considered in relation to obesity and weight loss. The benefits of physical activity extend much further. Regular participation in physical activity is known to reduce the risk of physical health problems such as cardiovascular disease and stroke, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, some cancers and osteoporosis. There is also evidence that regular participation in physical activity improves both short- and long- term psychosocial wellbeing by reducing feelings of stress, anxiety and depression.

Video

How long have you been sitting there? National Heart Foundation of Australia, YouTube, (30 April 2018). Video to promote the message that 'any physical activity is better than none'. Advises people to get active in small bouts, building up to meeting the current Australian PA guidelines for most adults (30 minutes of moderate activity; 5x per week), and references potential health benefits, particularly for the heart.

Physical activity campaigns and initiatives

National Ride2School Day (25 March 2024). Australia’s biggest celebration of active travel and one of the best days on the school calendar. It is a day full of fun and colour where students, teachers and parents discover the joy of riding and kick-start healthy habits for the future.
Walk Safely to School Day (10 May 2024). An annual event when all Primary School children will be encouraged to walk and commute safely to school. It is a Community Event seeking to promote Road Safety, Health, Public Transport and the Environment.
Exercise Right week (last week of May since 2014). An annual awareness campaign held in the last full week of May every year. Since it’s inception in 2014, the campaign has aimed to highlight the benefits of exercise for health and well-being, and to help Australians to understand where to get the “right” advice for their individual needs.
National Health and Physical Education Day (September 2023). A nationwide initiative that highlights the importance of HPE in the Australian Curriculum, and its influence on the learning and development of children.

ParticipACTION – offers a variety of promotions, competitions and programs at different times for individuals and communities. Often include prizes.

ParticipACTION app is a free app designed to get Canadians moving, individually or in team challenges, and to reward them with awesome prizes. Everything in the app is research-based, rooted in behaviour change science and designed for Canadians by Canadians.
Community Challenge. First held in 2019 the event was cancelled in 2020 (due to COVID-19) but is planned to go ahead in June 2021. Get moving with friends, family, coworkers and neighbours and build social bonds while participating in the Challenge. Your Community could win the grand prize of $100,000 and be crowned Canada’s Most Active Community .
- Enderby wins first ParticipACTION Community Better Challenge, Sydney Morton, Global News, (30 June 2019). In the first ParticipAction Community Better Challenge, cities across Canada competed for $150,000 to support local physical activity initiatives. Cities across Canada tracked more than 265 million minutes of physical activity to compete for the grand prize. But the small city of 2,964 people came together to make sure they were victorious. Five other Canadian cities were awarded $20,000 each for their efforts: Harvey, N.B., Amqui, Que., Marathon, Ont., Headingley, Man., and Gameti, N.W.T.
Active Family Pledge! As a family, pledge to make family time active time. Share your pledge on Facebook or Twitter using the social card below and inspire others! Let your family and friends know that your family is an active family. When launched in 2020, participants who posted a pic or video of their family getting active with the hashtag #ActiveFamilyPledge and tagged @participaction had a chance to win 1 of 5 $100 Sport Chek gift cards!

#MOVEWEEK. Started in 2012, held annually in the last week of May. An annual global event showcasing the benefits of being active and participating regularly in sport and physical activity. Although primarily European, other countries around the world are also embracing MOVEWEEK.
#NOWWEMOVE. Started in Europe in 2012, now a world-wide campaign to promote sport and physical activity and tackle the physical inactivity epidemic.
NowWeBike. Held in September, the first edition of the NowWeBike pan-European cycling tour took place in 2015. A team of three cyclists covered over 2700km and passed 14 countries on their way to Brussels. Their route led through Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. The NowWeBike cycling tour was not just about cycling from one city to another. It was about interaction with local citizens aiming to inspire more people to choose cycling as an easy and sustainable way to stay active and healthy. The goal of the NowWeBike tour is to promote movement and tolerance across Europe and to raise awareness of the so-called Inactivity Time Bomb. The three cyclists were awarded special diplomas for being Ambassadors of Physical Activity and Tolerance.
European Week of Sport (September). Launched in 2015, the European Week of Sport was created in response to the worsening inactivity crisis. From five million participants and 7,000 events in 2015 the 2019 Week of Sport celebrated 16 million Europeans participating in #BeActive activities.
European School Sport Day (September 2023). ESSD is open to any kind of physical activity that has the aim to encourage children to be active for at least 120 minutes per the day or to run or walk the distance of the given year (e.g. 2023 metres in 2023).

National Fitness Day [24 September 2020]. Spearheaded by Ireland Active and supported by Sport Ireland, Healthy Ireland and the European Commission, aims to promote the benefits of physical activity, whilst showcasing the range of facilities, sports and options available across the country for people to choose from.

Information and competitions for facilities, exercise professionals, schools and work paces.
Facilities such as leisure centres, gyms, fitness centres and sports clubs can run free taster sessions, day passes, open gym, special offer or participate in an event.
Schools can do the annual Take on the Teacher Challenge. Sports equipment vouchers to be won.
Workplaces can offer activity opportunities for employees. Fitbits to be won.
Inclusive guidelines

National Fitness Day. Next edition: 22 September 2021. A chance to highlight the role physical activity plays across the UK, helping us raise awareness of its importance in helping us lead healthier and active lifestyles. Since it was created in 2010, National Fitness Day has grown to become the most important day in the fitness calendar, with more than five million people taking part on the day, and 20,000 fitness events across more than 6,000 venues, and with a social media reach of more than 65 million. National Fitness Day is facilitated by ukactive and previously, the énergie Group, which founded National Fitness Day back in 2011. Realising that this is an event that would benefit with participation from the whole sector, énergie ‘gifted’ National Fitness Day to ukactive in 2014.

National Fitness Day 2020 aims to help UK bounce back from COVID-19 under the banner of ‘Fitness Unites Us’, ukactive media release, (30 July 2020). ukactive will once again coordinate the day, mobilising more than 4,000 ukactive members to host free activities that get people moving together in every corner of the UK. Last year’s National Fitness Day saw more than 5,000 sites across the UK host around 20,000 activities, challenges and classes, to encourage more people to find a way to stay active that they love.
#Fitness2Me is a social media campaign that aims to celebrate what fitness means to people, promoting that keeping physically active means something different to us all. We want to make #Fitness2Me the biggest movement in breaking down the barriers that stop people being active, showing that fitness is for everyone!
Schools. In 2017 the 10@10 initiative was launched to help schools get involved on National Fitness Day. This was a simple activation to celebrate the day and simply called on schools to do 10 minutes of physical activity at 10am on the day itself. We provided digital school toolkits with digital workouts, activities and games to support schools in doing this.

National Physical Fitness and Sports Month. #MoveInMay. Held annually in May since 1983, primarily an awareness campaign.
Proclamation on National Physical Fitness and Sports Month, 2020, (30 April 2020). This month, I urge all Americans to invest in the health of our great Nation by incorporating physical activity into their daily lives and by promoting the positive effects of sports on youth development. Through regular physical activity, we can achieve our shared goal of living healthier lives. Now, therefore, I, Donald J. Trump, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim May 2020 as National Physical Fitness and Sports Month. I call upon the people of the United States to make physical activity and sports participation a priority in their lives.

International practice

International guidelines, strategies, surveys, and examples

Guidelines

Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour, World Health Organisation, (2020). The WHO Guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour provide evidence-based public health recommendations for children, adolescents, adults and older adults on the amount of physical activity (frequency, intensity and duration) required to offer significant health benefits and mitigate health risks. For the first time, recommendations are provided on the associations between sedentary behaviour and health outcomes, as well as for subpopulations, such as pregnant and postpartum women, and people living with chronic conditions or disability.

Strategies and policies

Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018-2030: more active people for a healthier world, World Health Organisation, (2018). WHO has developed a new global action plan to help countries scale up policy actions to promote physical activity. It responds to the requests by countries for updated guidance, and a framework of effective and feasible policy actions to increase physical activity at all levels. The plan sets out four objectives (create active societies, active environments, active people and active systems) and recommends 20 evidence-based policy actions that are applicable to all countries and address the cultural, environmental and individual determinants of inactivity.

Other

Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ), World Health Organisation, (accessed 22 March 2021). Given the global interest in the role of physical activity to prevent Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) and the lack of data to inform within-country public health efforts, the WHO developed the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) for physical activity surveillance back in 2002. Since then, the GPAQ has undergone a research program which shows that it is valid and reliable, but also adaptable to incorporate cultural and other differences. It has been used in more than 100 countries globally.The GPAQ covers several components of physical activity, such as intensity, duration, and frequency, and it assesses three domains in which physical activity is performed (occupational physical activity, transport-related physical activity, and physical activity during discretionary or leisure time).
Health-enhancing physical activity policy audit tool, Bull F, Milton K and Kahlmeier S, World Health Organisation, (2011). The promotion of physical activity across the life course requires a multi-faceted response across many sectors. This document provides a protocol and method for a detailed compilation and communication of country level policy responses on physical inactivity. It is structured around a set of 17 key attributes identified as essential for successful implementation of a population-wide approach to the promotion of physical activity across the life course.
Jakarta Statement on Active Living (1997). The World Health Organisation (WHO) held its 4th International Conference on Health Promotion (Jakarta, Indonesia, July 1997) and considered ten priority health promotion areas. The Conference statement responded to these issues and challenges and contains several statements regarding the need for health promotion programs: (1) scientific evidence shows that daily moderate activity enhances health in its broadest sense; (2) sedentary lifestyles make it increasingly difficult for people to remain physically active; (3) experiences suggest three pathways for successful intervention programs – (i) sound policy that supports action, (ii) program evaluation, and (iii) effective advocacy; (4) a review of effective programs identifies these common themes – (i) the possibility of immediate results, (ii) action that is taken locally, (iii) programs targeting children and youth, (iv) realisation that interventions should be simple, and (v) documentation of results to determine transfer of experiences.
Let’s be active for health for all, World Health Organisation, YouTube, (3 June 2018). The Let’s be active campaign is promoting the advice of the WHO Global action plan on physical activity, which was endorsed at the World Health Assembly in 2018.
Physical Activity, World Health Organisation, (accessed 22 March 2021). Landing page for resources on physical activity and the WHO responses..

Global Observatory for Physical Activity (GoPA)

The Global Observatory for Physical Activity (GoPA) was launched in 2014 to provide information related to physical (in)activity as a public health issue. The main resource provided are standardised country cards , based on common indicators and sources. The cards allow cross-country comparisons and provide data for countries to initiate or improve standards, policies, program development, and evaluation.

Indicators include: general country information (i.e. population size, life expectancy, literacy, socioeconomic indicators); physical activity prevalence; estimated physical inactivity health burden and related mortality; national physical activity plan; physical activity surveillance; and research in physical activity. There were 217 Country Cards available in 2020 with more planned.
Australia was ranked 3rd for physical activity research worldwide, contributing 5.17% to physical activity research worldwide [Australian Country Card, Global Observatory for Physical Activity, (2020)]. The United States was ranked 1st, contributing 25.6%. The Country card also highlighted that Australia did not currently have a national physical activity plan, although it does have a national survey; that less than 50% of people over the age of 18 years met physical activity guidelines (46% of females and 49% of males); and that Australia was slightly below the world average for 'deaths related to physical inactivity' with 7.8% in Australia, and 9% average worldwide.
More information, and other Country Cards, are available from the GoPA website.

Other

The Copenhagen Consensus Conference 2016: children, youth, and physical activity in schools and during leisure time, Bangsbo J, Krustrup P, Duda J, et.al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 50(19), pp.1177-1178, (2016). This evidence-based consensus statement was prepared by 24 researchers from 8 countries, representing a variety of academic disciplines. Physical activity is an overarching term that consists of many structured and unstructured forms within school and out-of-school-time contexts, including organised school sport, physical education, outdoor recreation, motor skill development programs, active play during recess, and active transportation such as biking and walking to/from school. This consensus statement represents accord on the effects of physical activity on children's and youth's fitness, health, cognitive functioning, engagement, motivation, psychological wellbeing and social inclusion. There are 21 items of consensus grouped into four thematic areas that identify educational and physical activity implementation strategies

Guidelines

Physical activity guidelines have been developed by the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology for specific age groups and special populations. The Society updated these guidelines in 2016 to integrate their recommendations on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep to represent behaviour on a 24-hour cycle.

Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Adults ages 18 - 64 years, Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, (2020)
Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Adults ages 65 years and older, Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, (2020)
Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, (accessed 18 January 2024)
Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the early years (0-4 years), Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, (2017).
Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for children and youth (5-17 years), Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, (2017).

Strategies and policies

A Common Vision for increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary living in Canada: Let’s Get Moving, Public Health Agency of Canada, (2018). The Common Vision is guided by five interdependent principles that are foundational to increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary living. They include Physical Literacy, Life Course, Population Approach, Evidence-based and Emergent-focused and Motivations.

A Framework for Recreation in Canada 2015: Pathways to Wellbeing, Canadian Parks and Recreation Association/Interprovincial Sport and Recreation Council, (February 2015). The Framework for Recreation in Canada is the guiding document for public recreation providers in Canada. We have an opportunity to work together in ways that will enable all Canadians to enjoy recreation and outdoor experiences in supportive physical and social environments.

Active Canada 20/20: A physical activity plan for Canada, Spence J, Faulkner G, Bradstreet C, et.al., Canadian Journal of Public Health, Volume 106(8), pp.e470-e473, (2015). Physical inactivity is a major public health concern in Canada. To date, Canada’s approach to increasing population physical activity has been fragmented and has lacked coordination, funding, and a strategic approach. Active Canada 20/20 provides both a national plan and a commitment to action from non-government as well as the public sector to engage the general public. It outlines a road map for initiating, coordinating, and implementing proactive initiatives to address the prominent health risk factor that inactivity presents.

ParticipACTION Reports

#Family Influence: The role of the family in the physical activity, sendetary and sleep behaviours of children and youth, 2020 ParticipACTION Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth, ParticipACTION, (2020). The 2020 Report Card is the most comprehensive assessment of child and youth physical activity in Canada. The Report Card synthesizes data from multiple sources, including the best available peer-reviewed research, to assign evidence-informed grades across 14 indicators. The Report Card has been replicated in over 50 cities, provinces and countries, where it has served as a blueprint for collecting and sharing knowledge about the physical activity of young people around the world.

Better with Age: The 2019 ParticipACTION Report Card on Physical Activity for Adults, ParticipACTION, (2019). Despite growing media attention and increased social awareness about the downsides of living an inactive life, few adults living in Canada are meeting national guidelines of 150 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each week. In fact, only 16% of adults are active enough to reap the health benefits associated with engaging in regular physical activity. With the proportion of older adults in Canada growing faster than ever before, the toll of not being active will be felt on our health-care system, our communities and on the economy more heavily than ever before. This is our wakeup call, Canada! It’s time to sit less and move more so we can help prevent the development of chronic diseases and live our best lives possible. Supplementary Data report, ParticipACTION , (2019).

ParticipACTION Pulse Report, MEC/Participaction, (April 2018). The Pulse Report assesses the social climate of physical activity among Canadian adults. A first of its kind, this report explores Canadians’ thoughts, feelings, and motivations as they relate to physical activity and informs what shifts are needed in order to make physical activity a vital part of everyday life in Canada. It highlights that despite Canadians apparently valuing and enjoying physical activity; knowing they’re not physically active enough; and thinking that this is something that they could change, they are not actually changing their behaviours. The report also suggests that although the majority of Canadians think that individuals have primary responsibility for being sufficiently active they also need help, and organisations and the government should be working towards this.

Case Study

Children's Fitness Tax Credit (CFTC). The Government of Canada implemented the CFTC in 2007 that allows a non-refundable tax credit of up to $500 to register a child 16 years old or younger in an eligible PA program. To qualify, PA programs must be offered for a minimum of 8 consecutive weeks or 5 consecutive days, be supervised, and contribute to "cardio-respiratory endurance, plus one or more of: muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, or balance." In the case of children with disabilities, the parent may claim an extra $500 for children up to 18 years of age and include costs for equipment, assistive devices, and transportation. The CFTC was crafted based on the principles of effectiveness, simplicity, efficiency, and equity Effectiveness relates to the tax credit promoting participation in PA that has long lasting effects. Simplicity is making the process of claiming the CFTC as easy as possible for parents, organizations, and the government. The principle of efficiency requires that the tax credit be implemented and used by parents as quickly as possible. The final principle, equity, calls for the CFTC to be beneficial to parents across Canada in all economic circumstances, and to be equally beneficial for children with disabilities.

Other

2019 Alberta Survey on Physical Activity, Alberta Centre for Active Living, (January 2019). In addition to physical activity and sedentary levels, the 2019 Alberta Survey on Physical Activity takes a look at how much sleep Albertans achieve. 36% of Albertans are not physically active enough to achieve health benefits and one-third of Albertans sit for 10 hours or more a day.

Excess weight expected to become 2nd leading preventable cause of cancer, after tobacco, Canadian Cancer Society media release, (8 May 2019). The Canadian Population Attributable Risk of Cancer (ComPARe) study estimated that by 2042, the number of cancer cases due to excess weight will nearly triple, from 7,200 to 21,200. Currently, more than 1 in 2 Canadian adults have excess weight, putting them at increased risk for at least 13 different types of cancer, including breast, colorectal, endometrial and esophageal cancers. For more information on the results of the ComPARe study, please visit prevent.cancer.ca. The study has also led to several published research papers including:

Estimates of the current and future burden of cancer attributable to lack of physical activity in Canada, Christine Friedenreich, Amanda Barberio, Joy Pader, et.al., Preventive Medicine, Volume 122, pp.65-72, (May 2019). Physical activity reduces the risk of many cancers, yet the prevalence of inadequate physical activity among Canadians remains high. The authors estimated the current attributable and future avoidable burden of cancer related to inadequate physical activity among Canadian adults. For 2015, the total attributable burden due to inadequate physical activity for associated cancers was 10.6% and 4.9% for all cancers. A 50% reduction in inadequate physical activity could avoid 39,877 cumulative cases of cancer by 2042. Over 9000 cancer cases in 2015 were estimated to be attributable to inadequate physical activity and 5170 incident cases of cancer could be prevented with increases in physical activity levels by 2042.
Estimates of the current and future burden of cancer attributable to sedentary behavior in Canada, Christine M.Friedenreich, Amanda Barberio, Joy Pader, et.al., Preventive Medicine, Volume 122, pp.73-80, (May 2019). Leisure-time sedentary behavior is an emerging modifiable risk factor for cancer. We estimated the proportion of cancers attributed to leisure-time sedentary behavior as a separate risk factor from physical activity in Canada for 2015. We projected numbers of future avoidable cancers by 2042 using various assumed levels of reduced leisure-time sedentary behavior in the population. The total attributable burden due to leisure-time sedentary behavior was estimated to be 10.3% for associated cancers and 6.5% for all-cancers in 2015. A 50% reduction in leisure-time sedentary behavior across the Canadian population could avoid 4054 cancers by 2042. We estimated that over 3000 cancer cases in Canada were attributable to leisure-time sedentary behavior in 2015, and that that 4054 incident cancer cases could be prevented by 2042 with meaningful reductions in leisure-time sedentary behavior.
The current and future burden of cancer attributable to modifiable risk factors in Canada: Summary of results, Abbey Poirier, Yibing Ruan, Karena Volesky, et.al, Preventive Medicine, Volume 122, pp.140-147, (May 2019). We estimated that between 33 and 37% (up to 70,000 cases) of incident cancer cases among adults aged 30 years and over in 2015 were attributable to preventable risk factors. Similar proportions of cancer cases in males (34%) and females (33%) were attributable to these risk factors. Tobacco smoking and a lack of physical activity were associated with the highest proportions of cancer cases. Through various risk reduction interventions, policies and public health campaigns, an estimated 10,600 to 39,700 cancer cases per year could be prevented by 2042.

Guidelines

EU Physical Activity Guidelines: recommended policy actions in support of health-enhancing physical activity, EU Working Group ‘Sport and Health’, (2008). School-aged youth should participate in 60 minutes or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily, in forms that are developmentally appropriate, enjoyable, and involve a variety of activities. The full dose can be accumulated in bouts of at least 10 minutes. Development of motor skills should be emphasised in early age groups. Specific types of activity according to the needs of the age group should be addressed: aerobic, strength, weight bearing, balance, flexibility, motor development. For healthy adults aged 18 to 65 years, the goal recommended by the WHO is to achieve a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity 5 days a week or at least 20 minutes of vigorous-intensity physical activity 3 days a week. For adults aged over 65, in principle the same goals as for healthy younger adults should be achieved. In addition, strength training and balance exercises to prevent falls are of particular importance in this age group.
National physical activity recommendations: systematic overview and analysis of the situation in European countries, Kahlmeier S, Wijnhoven T, Alpiger P, et.al., BMC Public Health, (12 February 2015). Developing national physical activity guidelines and recommendations provide a benchmark for the implementation and assessment of programs that promote physical activity (PA). A systematic review was conducted of the national PA recommendations across 37 of the 53 countries within the European Region. Only 40% of the countries have developed recommendations/guidelines for PA, a necessary first step towards comprehensive PA promotional strategies. In addition, only a few countries have addressed the influences of sedentary behaviours in their recommendations.

Other

Sport and physical activity: Special Eurobarometer 472 report, European Union, (2017). Survey requested by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture and co-ordinated by the Directorate-General for Communication. This report presents the results of the Special Eurobarometer public opinion survey on sport and physical activity in the 28 EU Member States. This follows three previous Eurobarometer surveys on sport and physical activity, conducted in 2002, 2009 and 2013. Main findings include:

Nearly half of Europeans never exercise or play sport, and the proportion has increased gradually in recent years.
Overall, in the EU, men exercise, play sport or engage in other physical activity more than women. This disparity is particularly marked in the 15-24 age group, with young men tending to exercise or play sport on a regular basis considerably more than young women. The amount of regular activity that people do tends to decrease with age. Engagement in sport and physical activity is also less prevalent among people with lower levels of education and among those with financial difficulties.
In a given week, more than half of Europeans do not do any vigorous physical activity, and around half do not engage in moderate physical activity.
15% of Europeans do not walk for 10 minutes at a time at all in a weekly period, while 12% sit for more than 8.5 hours per day.
Formal sport settings are less popular than informal settings such as parks or outdoors, the home or the journey between home and work or school.
The most common reasons for engaging in sport or physical activity are to improve health (54%) and to improve fitness (47%). Other popular reasons include relaxing (38%), having fun (30%) and improving physical performance (28%).
A lack of time is by far the main reason given for not practising sport more regularly (40%). Other factors mentioned are a lack of motivation or interest (20%) and having a disability or illness (14%).
Most Europeans think that there are opportunities available locally to be physically active, but many do not think their local authority does enough.
Overall, 6% of EU citizens say that they engage in voluntary work that supports sport activities. People who volunteer in sport do a range of different activities, most commonly organising or helping to run a sporting event (33%), followed by coaching or training (27%).

Strategies and policies

Physical Activity Programme, City of Helsinki [Finland], (2019). The City of Helsinki is highlighting the promotion of physical activity as a strategic spearhead project. Physical activity is being integrated into the City of Helsinki’s basic operations, budget planning and divisional targets as part of the promotion of wellbeing and health. The actions of the Physical Activity Programme are targeted at the overall system, community and environment, as well as the individual level. Over the next three years, approximately 60 actions will make physical activity a visible part of the everyday lives of residents.

Guidelines

Physical Activity, Ministry of Health. The New Zealand Physical Activity Guidelines outline minimum levels of physical activity required to gain health benefits. Guidelines are established for older adults (over the age of 65), adults (ages 18 to 65 years), children and young people (ages 5 to 17 years) and children under the age of 5 years.

The guidelines for children under 5 years and children and young people (ages 5-18) were updated in 2017.
Eating and Activity Guidelines for New Zealand Adults, New Zealand Ministry of Health, (updated November 2020). These Guidelines provide the current evidence-based recommendations on healthy eating and physical activity for New Zealand adults, including pregnant and breastfeeding women. To be concise, we focus on the detail practitioners need at a glance: that is, what people need to eat or do, a summary of the rationale – ‘why’ – and a little on how to put the recommendations into practice
Guidelines on Physical Activity for Older People, aged 65 years and older, New Zealand Ministry of Health, (2013). These guidelines give five key recommendations to help older people live longer, healthier lives. These recommendations are: (1) be as physically active as possible and limit sedentary behaviour; (2) consult an appropriate health practitioner before starting or increasing physical activity; (3) start off slowly and build up to the recommended daily physical activity levels; (4) aim to participate in physical activity on five days per week for at least 30 minutes if the activity is of moderate-intensity, and 15 minutes if it is of vigorous-intensity, or a mixture of moderate and vigorous intensity aerobic activity; (5) aim to do three sessions of flexibility and balance activities, and two sessions of muscle-strengthening activities per week.

Strategies and policies

Sport New Zealand 2020-2032 Strategic Direction, Sport New Zealand, (September 2019). Sport NZ ‘s vision is simple - to get Every Body Active in Aotearoa New Zealand.
Hamilton City Council's Play Strategy 2019-2039, Hamilton City Council [NZ], (2019). It is widely recognised that physical activity has a range of benefits for individuals and broader society. Hamilton City Council’s Play Strategy aims to provide a range of opportunities for people to engage in physical activity across Hamilton City. In order to ensure that these opportunities are available to as many people as possible, we have defined organised sport, informal recreation and ‘pop-up’/spontaneous play as ‘play’.
Green Prescriptions, New Zealand Ministry of Health, (accessed 18 January 2024). A Green Prescription (GRx) is a health professional’s written advice to a patient to be physically active, as part of the patient’s health management.

Survey

Active New Zealand Survey, Sport New Zealand, (accessed 26 February 2021). Active NZ has been running in one form or another since 1997. Since 2017, we survey a sample of New Zealanders registered on the electoral roll every month through our research partner, Nielsen. We are doing this to understand the physical activities you do and what you think about being physically active. Annual survey reports and further information is available on the Sport New Zealand website.

Active NZ Data Visualisation Tool. The Data Visualisation Tool provides the sector with access to relevant information from Sport NZ's Active NZ survey. The survey collects participation data from ages 5-plus across New Zealand, and this tool displays the data that has been collected from 2018 and 2019. The tool allows you to delve into data across New Zealand and specific to your region. The dashboards will also help you drill down into targeted insights, and you can easily share the information you find via email.

Guidelines

Physical activity guidelines: UK Chief Medical Officers' report, Department of Health and Social Care, (7 September 2019). A report from the Chief Medical Officers in the UK on the amount and type of physical activity people should be doing to improve their health. The report contains guidance for health professionals, policymakers and others working to promote physical activity, sport and exercise for health benefits.

Strategies and policies

A more active Scotland: Scotland's Physical Activity Delivery Plan, Scottish Government, (July 2018). The Active Scotland Outcomes Framework sets out the shared vision and goals which have shaped the approach the Scottish Government and a wide range of partner organisations have taken to supporting and enabling people in Scotland to be more physically active. The identified actions and outcomes align with the WHO Global Action Plan.
Everybody Active, every day: an evidence based approach to physical activity, Public Health England, (2014). A national, evidence-based approach to support all sectors to embed physical activity into the fabric of daily life and make it an easy, cost-effective and ‘normal’ choice in every community in England. PHE has co-produced the framework with over 1,000 national and local leaders in physical activity and is calling for action from providers and commissioners in: health, social care, transportation, planning, education, sport and leisure, culture, the voluntary and community sector, as well as public and private employers. To make active lifestyles a reality for all, the framework’s 4 areas for action will:

change the social ‘norm’ to make physical activity the expectation
develop expertise and leadership within professionals and volunteers
create environments to support active lives
identify and up-scale successful programmes nationwide

Sport for Life: A vision for sport in Scotland, Sport Scotland, (April 2019). The new corporate strategy launched by Sport Scotland, outlines our vision, mission and assets and the approach we take.
Sporting Future: A new strategy for an active nation, Ministry for Sport, Tourism and Heritage, United Kingdom, (December 2015). At the heart of the Government’s strategy are five simple, but fundamental outcomes of participation in sport and physical activity: (1) physical health; (2) mental health; (3) individual development; (4) social and community development; and (5) economic development. It is these outcome that will define how governments (federal and local) prioritise and fund programs.
Uniting the Movement, Sport England, (January 2021). Our 10-year vision to transform lives and communities through sport and physical activity. As we adapt and rebuild from the huge disruption caused by the coronavirus pandemic, we need to collectively reimagine how we keep movement, sport and activity central to the lives of everyone. Because if we harness its power, we’ll be able to improve people’s lives in so many ways. Three key objectives:
- Advocating for movement, sport and physical activity.
- Joining forces on five big issues (recover and reinvent; connecting communities; positive experiences for children and young people; connecting with health and wellbeing; and, active enviroments).
- Creating the catalysts for change (effective investment models; realising the power of people and leadership; applying innovation and digital; high-quality data, insight and learning; and, good governance).

Active Lives Survey

The Active Lives Surveys measure the activity levels of people across England. There are two surveys: Active Lives Adult, which is published twice a year, and Active Lives Children and Young People, which is published annually. Both give a unique and comprehensive view of how people are getting active. The Active Lives Online tool allows users to explore the Adult (18+) survey data starting from November 2015.

Active Lives Adult. Trends shown in the serial data from the Adult Survey include:

Higher family income has a significant positive influence on sports participation rate;
Proximity to coastline and inland waterways (within 10km) increased participation for open-space and aquatic activities;
Participation in some sports (golf for example) is more sensitive to changes in household economic circumstances;
Higher population density produced greater participation in organised sports. Lower population density produced greater participation in individual (particularly outdoor) sports;
People who continue into higher education have higher participation rates in sport (probably linked to higher family income);
People who participate in sport also attended three or more cultural events within the previous year;
There is a positive impact that ethnic density appears to have upon participation rate in sport. Communities having a sufficiently large ethnic population tended to have better participation rates than those same ethnic groups living in ‘less dense’ populations;
Access to competitive activities (events, tournaments, leagues) tended to increase participation.
People who volunteer and play sport are less likely to feel lonely and report higher levels of happiness.
Nearly a third of people who are not currently active indicate that they don't feel they have the ability to be active. Competence is a significant factor in whether or not people enjoy sport and physical activity, which in turn, is the biggest driver of participation.

Active Lives Children. Trends shown in the serial data from the Children and Young People Survey include:

Boys are more likely to be active than girls. The gap between boys and girls who are active is fairly consistent across school years.
There is a positive association between levels of engagement in sport and physical activity and levels of mental wellbeing; individual development; and community development.
Physically literate children do twice as much activity.
The more of the five elements of physical literacy - enjoyment, confidence, competence, understanding and knowledge - children have, the more active they are, and the more likely they are to report higher levels of happiness, being more trusting of other children, and higher levels of resilience (continuing to try if you find something difficult).
Physical literacy decreases with age. As children grow older, they report lower levels of enjoyment, confidence, competence, and understanding.
Enjoyment is the biggest driver of activity levels.
Girls are less likely to say they enjoy or feel confident about doing sport and physical activity.
Among children aged 5-7, boys are more likely to love playing sport, while girls are more likely to love being active.
Children from the least affluent families are less likely to enjoy activity than those from the most affluent families, and previous research shows they are also far less likely to be active.
Black children are more physically literate than other ethnic groups – driven by boys, but they're less active than the population as a whole.

Other

The ABC of physical activity for health: A consensus statement from the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, O’Donovan G, Anthony J. Blazevich, Colin Boreham, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences , Volume 28(6), pp.573-591, (2010). The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences convened a panel of experts to review the literature and produce guidelines that health professionals might use.

Everybody Active, Every Day: An evidence-based approach to physical activity, Varney J, Brannan M and Aaltonen G, Public Health England, (2014). This report from Public Health England, an autonomous executive agency of the Department of Health, provides evidence that physical activity reduces the risk of many preventable diseases. It also supports the role of physical activity in enhancing the life of everyone, from children to mature age.

National Child Measurement Programme, England 2019/20 School Year, NHS Digital, (29 October 2020). This report presents findings from the Government's National Child Measurement Programme (NCMP) for England, 2019-20 school year. It covers children in Reception (aged 4-5 years) and Year 6 (aged 10-11 years) in mainstream state-maintained schools in England. The report contains analyses of Body Mass Index (BMI) classification rates by age, sex and ethnicity as well as geographic analyses. Some key facts include: in Reception obesity prevalence increased to 9.9% in 2019/20 from 9.7% in 2018/19. Year 6 obesity prevalence has increased, 20.2% in 2018-19 to 21.0% in 2019-20. Obesity prevalence was higher for boys than girls in both age groups (10.1% of boys in reception were obese compared to 9.7% of girls and 23.6% of boys in year 6 were obese compared to 18.4% of girls). Obesity prevalence for children living in the most deprived areas was more than double that of those living in the least deprived areas for both age groups.

Steps to solving inactivity, UK Active, (2014). Official government data shows that 29 per cent of people in England are classed as physically inactive, failing to achieve 30 minutes of moderate intensity activity per week. This report provides an evidence base on the link between physical inactivity and long-term health issues. It offers practical guidance on how to best prove the benefits of physical activity programs, so that successful programs can be continued and scaled up. A total of 952 physical activity programs receive some level of government funding in the United Kingdom; delivered through schools, workplaces, community groups, outdoor settings, and primary care venues. These programs reach 3.5 mission people annually. Recommendations made in this report include: (1) improve the collection, coordination and analysis of data through a single UK-wide framework; (2) increase investment into research on physical inactivity interventions in a number of settings; (3) establish a UK-wide framework that sets benchmarks across the physical activity sector; (4) encourage local government authorities to prioritise physical inactivity interventions as a public health issue; (5) integrate physical activity programs into planning across public health, social care, education, environmental and transport policies; and (6) encourage all local Health and Wellbeing Boards to have a ‘physical activity champion’ who can coordinate and integrate programs across government portfolios.

Value of Sport Monitor. Sport England provides a review of evidence regarding the value of sport. Besides commissioning its own research on the value of sport, Sport England also works with other organisations to collect and review data from across the world.

Value of Swimming, Swim England, (November 2019). As the national governing body for swimming, water polo, diving and synchronised swimming in England, Swim England commissioned this research to build a robust evidence base around the specific benefits of water-based activity. The findings show how swimming can positively contribute to physical and mental wellbeing, to individual and community development, and help to reduce the burden to the health and social care system. Some of the key benefits suggested by this report include that swimming is already reducing health and social care costs by up to £357million a year. This includes estimated savings from dementia, strokes, diabetes, colon cancer, breast cancer, depression, and reduced GP and psychotherapy visits by those who swim regularly. Additionally, across the different datasets analysed, a positive association was seen between swimming and: social connectedness; trust (in general and of neighbours); community cohesion; volunteering; perceived ability to achieve goals; life satisfaction; and, health and mental health.

Guidelines

Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (2nd edition), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, (2018). This second edition of the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans provides science-based guidance to help people ages 3 years and older improve their health through participation in regular physical activity. It reflects the extensive amount of new knowledge gained since the publication of the first Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, released in 2008. This edition of the Guidelines discusses the proven benefits of physical activity and outlines the amounts and types of physical activity recommended for different ages and populations.
2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee: Scientific Report, 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , (February 2018). The 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee submitted its Scientific Report to the Secretary of Health and Human Services in February 2018. The report summarizes the scientific evidence on physical activity and health, and will be used by the government to develop the second edition of the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. This report provides a comprehensive review of the various benefits that can be attributed to physical activity including physical and mental benefits for all ages. The report also highlights that any increase in physical activity is beneficial, even for people who are not currently meeting the recommended physical activity guidelines.

Strategies and policies

Healthy People 2020, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, (2010). This is an initiative of the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Healthy People provides a science-based, 10-year national objectives for improving the health of all Americans. Benchmarks and monitored progress over time is provided to: (1) encourage collaborations across communities and sectors; (2) empower individuals to make informed health decisions; and (3) measure the impact of prevention activities. The physical activity objectives for Healthy People 2020 reflect the strong state of the science supporting the health benefits of regular physical activity among youth and adults. Regular physical activity includes participation in moderate and vigorous physical activities and muscle-strengthening activities.
National Physical Activity Plan 2016. The 2016 Plan builds on the first U.S. National Physical Activity Plan, which was released in 2010. It is a collaboration of nine sectors: business and industry; community recreation; fitness and parks; education; faith-based settings; media; public health; sport; and transportation. The Plan is grounded in a socio-ecological model of health behaviour. This model holds that physical activity behaviour is influenced by a broad constellation of factors operating at the personal, family, institutional, community and policy levels. Sustainable behaviour change is most likely when influences at all the levels are aligned to support change. The Plan includes recommendations for actions at the national, state, local and institutional levels, but fundamentally it is a roadmap for change at the community level that facilitates personal behaviour change.
National Youth Sports Strategy, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health, (2019). The National Youth Sports Strategy is an essential resource for policymakers and key decision-makers in youth sports. It aims to unite U.S. youth sports culture around a shared vision: that one day, all young people will have the opportunity, motivation, and access to play sports — regardless of their race, ethnicity, sex, ability, or ZIP code. Based on research and best practices from the scientific community and successful youth sports programs across the United States, it offers actionable strategies for parents, coaches, organizations, communities, and policymakers to support youth sports participation for all.

Current state

Insufficient physical activity, when considered together with overweight and obesity prevalence, account for an estimated 9% of the total disease burden in Australia—the same as tobacco smoking (the leading individual risk factor). 67% of Australians aged 18+ and 25% of children aged 2-17 are overweight or obese.

If all Australians met the current PA guidelines, particularly the moderate-to-vigourous physical activity (MVPA) guidelines, the burden of physical inactivity related disease could be reduced by 26%. This would save the Australian economy an estimated AU$193.2m annually in direct (healthcare expenditure) and indirect (loss of tax revenue, private sector/health insurance, and household out-of-pocket expenses) costs.

Australian statistics

AusPlay Survey (AusPlay) is a large scale national population tracking survey funded and led by Sport Australia that tracks Australian sport and physical activity participation behaviours to help inform investment, policy and sport delivery.
- Sport and Physical Activity Participation and the Health Guidelines, Sport Australia, (updated April 2021). Estimates how many Australians (aged 15+) were meeting the Australian MVPA physical activity guidelines. The data currently does not support estimating how many meet the strength-based or screen-based guidelines.
Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey: Physical activity 2012-13, Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2014). This ABS survey looked at the level of physical activity and sedentary activity of pre-school children age 2 to 4 years; children and young people age 5 to 17 years and; adults 18 years and older. This ABS report found that toddlers and pre-schoolers in non-remote areas spent an average of 6.6 hours per day on physical activity and more time outdoors than non-Indigenous children of the same age (3.5 hours compared to 2.8 hours). They also averaged 1.5 hours of sedentary screen-based activities such as watching TV, DVDs or playing electronic games. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and youth in non-remote areas spent 2.5 hours per day on physical activity, 25 minutes more than non-Indigenous children of the same age and well above the recommended one hour per day. Almost half (48%) of Indigenous children living in non-remote areas met the physical activity level recommended for health.
Children’s Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities, Australia Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2013). The most recent ABS survey of children’s sport and physical activity participation indicated that, in the 12 months prior to the survey, an estimated that 60% of all children aged 5 to 14-years participated in at least one organised sport activity outside of school hours. The highest participation rate, 66%, was among the 9-11 age-group and the lowest participation rate, 56%, was among children aged 5-8 years. On average, children who participated spent five hours per fortnight playing and/or training in organised sport outside of school hours. Participation rate varied among the states and territories, with the Australian Capital Territory the highest (73%) and the Northern Territory the lowest (54%). Children’s participation was higher when both parents were born in Australia, compared to both parents born in other countries.
National Health Survey: First Results, 2017-18, Australian Bureau of Statistics, (December 2018). In 2017-18, two thirds (67.0%) of Australian adults were overweight or obese (12.5 million people), an increase from 63.4% in 2014-15. Almost one quarter (24.9%) of children aged 5-17 years were overweight or obese in 2017-18 (17% overweight and 8.1% obese). The rates were similar for boys and girls and this has remained stable over the previous ten years. Only a minority of Australians aged 15 years and over met the physical activity guidelines with 1.9% of 15-17 year olds, 15.0% of 18-64 year olds and 17.2% of 65 year olds and over meeting the 2014 Physical Activity Guidelines in 2017-18. One in ten (10.3%) 15-17 year olds engaged in 60 minutes of exercise (excluding workplace physical activity) every day and around one in six (15.8%) did strength or toning activities on three or more days in the last week. More than half (55.4%) of 18-64 years olds undertook 150 minutes or more of exercise in the last week, excluding workplace physical activity and this increased to 65.5% when workplace physical activity was included. One quarter (24.9%) of 18-64 year olds undertook strength or toning activities on two or more days in the last week. Just over a quarter (26.1%) of older adults (65 years and over) engaged in 30 minutes of exercise on 5 or more days in the last week.
- National Health Survey: First Results, 2014-15, Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2015). In 2014-15, 63.4% of Australian adults were overweight or obese (11.2 million people). This is similar to the prevalence of overweight and obesity in 2011-12 (62.8%) and an increase since 1995 (56.3%). Around one in four (27.4%) children aged 5-17 years were overweight or obese, similar to 2011-12 (25.7%). In 2014-15, 55.5% of 18-64 year olds participated in sufficient physical activity in the last week (more than 150 minutes of moderate physical activity or more than 75 minutes of vigorous physical activity, or an equivalent combination of both, including walking). Nearly one in three (29.7%) were insufficiently active (less than 150 minutes in the last week) while 14.8% were inactive (no exercise in the last week).
Participation in Sport and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2013-14, Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2015). This report provides details about persons aged 15-years and over who participated in a sport or physical recreational activity at least once during the 12 months prior to interview. Among the Australian population, aged 15 years and over, an estimated 60% reported that they had participated in sport and physical recreation at least once during the 12 months prior to the survey. This is down from 65% in the 2011-12 survey. Adult participation generally decreased with age, peaking during the 15–17 age-group at 74% and declining to 47% in the 65 years and older group. Walking for exercise continued to be the most popular physical recreational activity for adults (15 years and over); women were more likely to walk for exercise than men. The overall participation rate in organised sport, as a player or in a non-playing role (such as a coach or official) was 28% of all adults. There were variations by age-group and gender, with the 15-24 year age-group having the highest participation and the 65 years and over the lowest, at 44% and 17% respectively. The report also provides a more detailed breakdown of statistics for ‘organised’ and ‘non-organised’ sport and physical recreation activities. Walking as a recreational activity or as a means of active transport (e.g. adults walking to work or children walking to school) is an excellent means of achieving the recommended daily physical activity.
Profiles of Health, Australia 2011-13, Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2013). 62.8% of Australians aged 18 years and over were overweight or obese; this total is comprised of 35.3% overweight and 27.5% obese. A further 35.5% of the adult population were of normal weight and 1.7% were underweight. The prevalence of adult overweight and obesity has increased in Australia over the past twenty years.

Factors impacting physical activity

There are hundreds of factors identified in the literature that can influence physical activity and sports participation or non-participation, and the strength of each factor can vary from one individual to another and across each person's life-course.

Frequently identified barriers to participation include: time, cost, transport, and access to facilities and equipment. For older Australians (65+) poor health or injury are cited as barriers by almost half of the population (48%).

Factors that consistently appear in the literature as supportive of participation include: parental and family support (children of active parents are more likely to be active), peer interaction, positive environment, and venue accessibility.

More information on factors influencing participation is available in the Participation in Sport topic.

How can we get more Australians moving, more often?

To improve physical activity levels programs, strategies and policies are needed across multiple settings and levels of focus. Physical activity should be integrated into the settings where people live, work and play.

Environments and facilities need to be safe, accessible, attractive and conducive to active living.
Active transport participation and access, e.g. walking and cycling, can enable physical activity on a daily basis.
Sport and active recreation can help promote physical activity for people of all ages and abilities.
Healthcare, education and workplace settings are ideal sites for physical activity promotion, as they reach a large proportion of the population.

Good and promising practice

Case studies, programs, reports and research in key areas to help get more Australians moving more often.

Sport, recreation and community
Small changes add up - just 15 mins more of brisk walking by each person 5 days a week could cut Australia’s disease burden due to insufficient physical activity by 14%. If this time rose to 30 minutes, the burden could be reduced by 26%.

Education
Support daily PA opportunities including free play, PE and active transport, e.g. active classrooms, active travel drop-off points, the Daily Mile. Children who achieve 45mins a day of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) perform better in writing, numeracy, and overall proficiency.

Active places and spaces
Infrastructure and public spaces can play a key role in increasing PA. Accessible green spaces and actively promoting and facilitating safe active transport can have a significant impact on communities.

Workplaces
Encourage employees to be more active, less sedentary. Promote and facilitate: short activity breaks; walking meetings; shower and change facilities for active transport and lunch time activities; workplace challenges.

Healthcare
Exercise is medicine. Ensure assessment and advice about PA are routine. Where appropriate prescribe PA to reduce health risk factors; combat effects of disease; and improve general health and wellbeing.

Further information

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Physical Activity

Benefits of physical activity

Learn more about the benefits of physical activity.

Life stages

Physical activity guidelines, policies and strategies

Federal

Australian Capital Territory (ACT)

New South Wales (NSW)

Queensland (QLD)

South Australia (SA)

Tasmania (TAS)

Victoria (VIC)

Western Australia (WA)

Local government

Peak organisations

Australia

Canada

European Union (EU)

Ireland

United Kingdom (UK)

United States of America (USA)

World Health Organisation (WHO)

Global

Canada

European Union (EU)

Finland

New Zealand

United Kingdom (UK)

United States of America (USA)

Current state

How can we get more Australians moving, more often?

Good and promising practice

Case Studies

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Case Studies

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