Factors Influencing participation

In December 2022, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) estimated that 18% of Australia’s population was aged between 10 and 24 years. ⁴¹

In 2018, a longitudinal study of Australian children reported that young people (aged 12-17) were more likely to volunteer in sport and recreation, rather than in other forms of volunteering (e.g., religious or youth groups). ²⁵

Younger people (aged 15-24 years) are more likely to volunteer as coaches and officials and are more likely to be paid than older volunteers. ²⁰

Young people who start volunteering, especially in sport, are more likely to continue volunteering across the life course in a variety of roles and sectors. ^{15, 34}

In 2014, 84% of people who volunteered in Victoria had also participated in organised team sport as a child. This was significantly higher participation than other organised activities, such as youth groups (62%) and arts/cultural activities (52%). ¹³

In 2022: ³⁹

• An estimated 175,360 (19% of) Australians aged 15-17 years participated at least once per year as a volunteer in sport or recreation (16% of men; 21% of women).
• An estimated 288,990 (12% of) Australians aged 18-24 years participated at least once per year as a volunteer in sport or recreation (14% of men; 10% of women).

Young people are more likely to be motivated to volunteer to:

• Gain experience and help them progress professionally or academically. ^{14, 20, 24, 34, 42}
• Express their values and make a difference, e.g., things they feel improve the world or their community or to support a specific cause. ^{24, 40, 42}
• Improve social relationships (both existing and new). ^{24, 42}

One of the key factors that lead young people to start, and continue, volunteering is having a parent who also volunteers, allowing them to gain the benefits of volunteering throughout their lives. ^{20, 24}

• The ‘Longitudinal Study of Australian Children 2018 Annual Report’ identified that adolescents were more likely to volunteer if their parents volunteered, particularly their mother. ²⁵
• The 2017 Volunteers in Victoria report found that 75% of Victorian volunteers had a parent that volunteered. ¹³
• Research based on the Australian Sports Commission's AusPlay survey suggests that when at least one parent participates in sport and volunteers at a sports club, their children’s participation rate is higher (89%). When a parent is not involved as a sport participant themselves, or is not a club volunteer, their children’s participation rate drops to 50%. ⁴³

Barriers to volunteering for young people are more likely to be:

• Costs (including time, out of pocket expenses, and potentially lost income from not doing paid roles) ^{20, 24, 34}
• The perception that volunteering is intimidating, non-inclusive, and that volunteers themselves are pious and selfless, and can’t want to get any benefits for themselves. ⁴⁰

In December 2022, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) estimated that 29% of Australia’s population was aged over 55 years. ⁴¹

Older adults are generally less likely than other age groups to volunteer in sport, possibly because they no longer have a strong personal connection to sport through personal or their child’s participation. ^{39, 24}

Evidence suggests that older adults who volunteer are likely to remain in better physical and mental health as they age. ¹⁸

When they do volunteer in sport, research by Gemba for Sport New Zealand in 2015 found that volunteer coaches aged 45 – 64 years old were the most qualified and engaged, with 60% having coached for six years or more. Older coaches were the most likely to have received coaching development, to have a coaching qualification, to be working at all levels of sport, and to coach at a diverse range of locations. ¹⁵

With an increasingly aging population, especially of people who have retired from full time work, older adults have the potential to be big contributors of volunteers for sport, not only through greater numbers of potential volunteers, but through providing valuable skills and knowledge. ^{18, 24, 41}

In 2022: ³⁹

• An estimated 412,946 (14% of) of Australians aged 45-54 years participated at least once per year as a volunteer in sport or recreation (17% of men; 11% of women).
• An estimated 332,960 (8% of) Australians aged 65 years and older participated at least once per year as a volunteer in sport or recreation (10% of men; 5% of women).

Older adults are more likely to be motivated to volunteer by:

• Social reasons and to feel included. ^{20, 24}
• Wanting to give something back to their community, to pass on skills, to feel and do good. ^{18, 20, 24, 34}
• Applying their skills, and feelings of self-worth and status. ^{18, 24}

Facilitators of participation for older people include:

• Flexible roles that fit around existing activities and don’t require strict time commitments. ¹⁸
• Having systems that coordinate and/or match volunteers with available opportunities, including information on what opportunities exist and commitments required. ¹⁸
• Availability of training, feeling safe and secure, age-inclusive organisations and roles. ¹⁸

Barriers to participation for this cohort include:

• Fear of ageism. ¹⁸
• Concerns around regulatory requirements or constraints. ¹⁸
• Cost (e.g., time, out of pocket expenses) ¹⁸

Culturally and linguistically diverse volunteers can share valuable skills and different lived experiences that can help to promote more inclusive and supportive environments, encourage economic participation, and increase community cohesion. ³⁷

Research by the global consulting management firm McKinsey found that more diverse organisations have improved decision making, employee satisfaction, and customer orientation. Overall, more ethnically diverse companies were found to be 35% more likely to outperform their industry partners. ⁴⁴

Multicultural individuals and communities can also benefit from greater participation in sport and active recreation. Building confidence, social engagement, gaining connections to the wider community, improving English language skills, understanding of Australian workplace culture, and a greater sense of belonging are all potential benefits for culturally diverse individuals who volunteer. ^{16, 37, 38, 44}

Social and cultural integration has been shown to have direct correlation to successful settlement of new arrivals. ³⁷ Research from New South Wales in 2022 found that around 93% of respondents agreed that volunteering can positively impact migrant settlement, and agreement was even higher for those who spoke an additional language to English. ³⁸

Increasing the diversity of volunteers and other participants in sport (players, fans, employees, etc.) can have positive benefits for sports organisations, communities, and individuals. ^{37, 44}

It is important that organisations and the sector more broadly better understand the factors that might motivate and facilitate more diverse individuals to get involved.

While this section talks about broad trends that can be seen in culturally diverse participation in sport volunteering, it is important to also remember that motivations, barriers, and facilitators will be different for specific cultures and individuals and may vary over time. Research by Gemba in New Zealand which included motivations to volunteer by ethnicity, showed that: ¹⁵

• Fun/enjoyment was the most important motivation for most groups, although for Māori the highest was ‘my children take part’.
• For Indian individuals it was to ‘gain new skills’ and because they were ‘passionate about sport’.
• Pacific people were motivated to ‘do something worthwhile’ and ‘contribute to my community’.
• Those from Asian backgrounds ‘to meet people and gain new skills’.

People from non-English speaking backgrounds are less likely to play or volunteer in organised sport in Australia than those from English-speaking backgrounds. ²⁰

• AusPlay data shows that in 2022, an estimated 282,000 (8% of) Australians [aged 18+] who spoke a language other than English (LOTE) at home, volunteered in sport and recreation activities at least once in the previous 12 months, compared to 16% (2.6 million) of those who spoke English. ³⁹
• The 2018 report of the ‘Longitudinal Study of Australian Children’ found that compared to adolescents who only spoke English at home, adolescents who spoke a language other than English were more likely to volunteer overall, but less likely to volunteer in sport. The most common volunteer roles were with community or welfare organisations, church or religious groups, or activities related to arts, heritage, culture, or music. ²⁵

Culturally and linguistically diverse individuals are more likely to be motivated to volunteer by:

• A desire to help others ^{15, 38}
• Giving back to the community ^{15, 38}
• Helping others ³⁸
• Social and community connection ^{15, 16, 38}
• Using/gaining skills and experience ^{15, 37, 38}
• Supporting a cause ³⁸
• Fun/enjoyment ^{15, 38}

Facilitators to volunteering for culturally and linguistically diverse individuals are more likely to be:

• Volunteering as a way of life ^{16, 38}
• Raising the profile of the organisation and connecting with community leaders ¹⁶
• Proactive and sustained engagement ¹⁶
• Promoting diversity and inclusion, cultural safety, (e.g., visible representation in different aspects of the org) ^{16, 38}
• Nurturing a sense of belonging ¹⁶
• Working with diverse volunteers to develop cross-cultural awareness ¹⁶
• Use plain English, and limit acronyms, especially in training and promotional material. ¹⁶
• Having culturally diverse individuals on boards and committees ¹⁶

Multicultural communities and individuals, especially those who have more recently moved to Australia may not be familiar with the ways in which sport and volunteering work in Australia. ^{16, 37, 38}

• Nearly half (46.4%) of volunteers in a 2022 study in New South Wales agreed that volunteering was understood differently in their culture or language. ³⁸
• Research by the UK Sport and Recreation Alliance found that 55% of the public didn’t realise community sports clubs rely on and are run by volunteers. ¹¹

Other barriers to volunteering for culturally and linguistically diverse individuals are more likely to be:

• Language (i.e., English not primary language spoken) ^{16, 37, 38}
• Discrimination and/or racism (including micro-aggression) ^{16, 37, 38, 46}
• Non-inclusive organisations (e.g., unwilling to accommodate cultural considerations such as such as gender-specific toilets, uniform options, translated materials and communications, practical rather than English-based assessments) ^{16, 37, 46}
• Reactive, not proactive recruitment ¹⁶
• Barriers such as time (family and work commitments), health, transport, childcare access, cost, etc. are like other groups. ^{16, 37, 38}

Sport and active recreation organisations may also believe that they are more inclusive than they are. Research about parkrun – a free, weekly, volunteer-led event which happens in thousands of communities worldwide – found that although existing volunteers believed parkrun was accessible and welcoming, the local UK parkruns studied didn’t necessarily reflect the cultural make-up of the community. As one respondent commented, participants “at London parkrun do not seem to represent the 30% Bangladeshi population in the area…perhaps it suggests that many local residents feel it is 'not for them'. ⁴⁵

Volunteering rates in communities or areas can be very different, depending on various factors. This is evident when comparing volunteering between metropolitan and rural, regional, or remote areas, and communities of different population sizes. ^{31, 35, 47}

Sport often forms a major part of community culture and wellbeing in rural, regional, and remote communities and also requires a higher proportion of volunteers from the population to remain viable. ^{20, 25, 33}

Australian and international research shows that people living in remote, rural, and regional areas are more likely to volunteer (both formally and informally) than those living in major cities or metropolitan areas, including in sport and recreation. ^{10, 13, 20, 25, 31, 32, 35, 47}

• A 2019 study of rural Western Australian volunteers found that the most numerous volunteer activities were sport and emergency services. ³²
• An analysis of 22,461 participants from 19 countries in 2018 found that participants from communities with between 2,001 and 20,000 residents were more likely to report volunteering in sport, relative to participants from larger communities (more than 500,000). ³⁵
• A 2017 survey in regional Victoria found that the sport and recreation (15%) and church and spiritual (10%) sectors had the highest rates of weekly volunteering. ¹³
• A 2015 Australian evidence review found that young people from non-metropolitan communities appear to volunteer more (more frequently and for more hours) than young people from metropolitan communities, suggesting young people may be more likely to volunteer where the community is smaller, more immediate, or more familiar. ⁴²

Aging and declining populations are a significant issue for many rural, regional, and remote communities. ^{32, 33} Attracting new people in the community to volunteering roles, retaining existing volunteers, and encouraging young people to volunteer are critical to long-term sustainability. ³²

Volunteering is more common outside of the major cities where population density is lower, despite participation rates for organised sport being similar across regions. ²⁰

AusPlay data shows that in 2022: ³⁹

• 14% of people living in major cities volunteered in sport or recreation at least once per year, compared to 42% who played at least once per week (i.e., regularly).
• 16% of people living in inner regional areas volunteered in sport or recreation at least once per year, compared to 39% who played at least once per week.
• 19% of people living in outer regional areas volunteered in sport or recreation at least once per year, compared to 38% who played at least once per week.
• 20% of people living in remote or very remote areas volunteered in sport or recreation at least once per year, compared to 37% who played at least once per week.

Motivations to volunteers in rural, regional, or remote communities can include:

• Volunteering as a way of life. ^{32, 33}
• Belief that volunteering is integral to the survival of the community. ^{32, 33}
• Personal interest or satisfaction. ³²
• Personal wellbeing, volunteers are more likely to be happy with their sense of community. ³²

Facilitators to volunteering in rural, regional, or remote communities can be: ³²

• Combining volunteering with other commitments.
• Establishing boundaries around volunteering.
• Learning when to say ‘no’ to requests for help.
• Flexible and adaptable approaches to volunteering.
• Alternative governance models, e.g., reducing the number of committee roles [can also be a barrier if existing participants and volunteers don’t like or accept the changes].

Barriers to volunteering in rural, regional, and remote communities can include:

• Being culturally or linguistically diverse. ³⁸
• Use of online systems, especially in areas with limited internet or mobile phone coverage and/or for older rural Australians. ³²
• Perceived experience/skill requirements (e.g., thinking they don't have the experience to be a committee member, fear of the unknown). ³²
• High base level of people in communities already volunteering, means limited pool to find/attract new volunteers. ³²
• Bureaucratic procedures, perceived over-regulation/red tape, risk responsibility. ³²
• Higher costs and complications of transport, especially due to distances that need to be travelled. ³³

An analysis of data from AusPlay identifies the rates of playing and volunteering by different groups. ³⁹

Volunteers in sport are more likely to:

• Have children in their household. ^{8, 20, 25}
• Be male. ^{15, 20, 48, 63}
• Be aged between 35 and 54 years. ^{13, 20, 63}
• Be employed, especially those who have higher annual household incomes. ^{8, 15, 20, 25, 48, 63}

Certain population groups are under-represented as sport volunteers, including:

• People with disability, special healthcare needs, or self-reported health problems. ^{20, 25, 48, 49, 63}
• Lower socio-economic or income households. ^{8, 20, 25, 48, 49}
• Culturally and linguistically diverse individuals. ^{8, 13, 20, 48}
• Sexuality or gender diverse participants. ⁵⁰

To be sustainable it is important for sport organisations to ensure that everyone in the community has the opportunity to be involved in sport regardless of their background, socio-economic status, or abilities. ⁷

More than a third, (37%) of Australians aged 15 years and over who had undertaken voluntary work through an organisation in last 12 months (in any sector) did so because of a personal or family involvement. The third highest motivation, after personal satisfaction/do something worthwhile, and to help others/community. ^{8, 49}

This is even more important in sport volunteering. Having a direct relationship or involvement in sport, i.e., being an existing or former player, volunteer, or supporting a family member (especially children) is the most reported motivation in the literature. ^{9, 12, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 51}

• 55% of Australian sport volunteers are involved as both a player and a volunteer in at least one sport. The proportion of male volunteers who also play the same sport is higher than for female volunteers – 60% for men, 51% for women. ²⁰
• Research for Sport New Zealand found that, on average, 54% of sports volunteers had participated in that sport in the last 12 months. Rates were higher for certain sports, e.g., 71% of badminton volunteers had also played badminton in the previous 12 months, while for triathlon only 20% of volunteers also competed in triathlon. ¹⁵
• Players or ex-players get involved in sport because sport is part of their life, they know sport doesn’t just run itself, and because they want to give something back. ^{20, 49}

On the flip side, not having such a connection (i.e., no interest in sport or children/family no longer participating) is the main barrier for those not currently volunteering, or most likely to stop volunteering. ^{12, 31, 51}

Sport volunteering is often highly correlated with life stage. Overall, families with children are most likely to volunteer in organised sport. Previous research for the Australian Sports Commission (ASC) found that 51% of those likely to volunteer in club sport in the next 12 months had children at home under 21 years. ⁵¹

While parents are much more likely to volunteer when their children are playing, the reverse is also true. Children of parents who are actively engaged in sport, especially when they both play and volunteer, are much more likely to play and volunteer themselves – giving them a much higher likelihood of reaping the lifetime benefits of sport for physical, social, and mental wellbeing. ^{13, 20, 25}

Those already participating in sport will generally be most effective and can help drive sustainable levels of volunteers. ¹⁵

Research for the Australian Sports Commission’s Market Segmentation for Sport Participation project found that one in three (30%) of Australians aged 14-75 who were not currently volunteering in club sport would volunteer if they were simply asked to do so. ¹²

This is consistent with other research that has found that non-volunteers may be unaware the club needs volunteers. ^{7, 11, 12, 37, 38} It also reinforces that a key facilitator of being a volunteer is feeling like they are making a difference and having a sense of meaning or purpose. ^{11, 12, 13, 15, 18}

Getting people outside of sport to volunteer is significantly harder, so organisations should primarily focus on people who already play, volunteer, watch (fans), or support sport to engage/further engage them as volunteers. ^{12, 15, 51}

Participation in sport, as a player, volunteer, or even a fan, can involve significant investment of time, money, and energy, potentially impacting how and who engages in sport.

Two of the most frequently identified barriers to volunteering are: ^{15, 16, 18, 24, 31, 32, 33, 47}

• Costs (out-of-pocket expenses, travel, meals, training, specialist software/equipment).
• Time (work, family, other commitments or activities, the fear that volunteering will take up too much time).

People are motivated to volunteer when they believe that expected rewards (e.g., learning new skills, social engagement, contributing to the community, etc.) are greater than the expected costs (e.g., time, energy, resources invested, opportunity costs of other activities, either paid or recreational). ^{27, 52, 53}

Rewards and what time and resources individuals can and will invest will vary between individuals and across the life course. For example, research on multicultural volunteers in NSW found that for those who were fluent in English, ‘no time’ and ‘cost’ were the two most common barriers to volunteering. For those who were not fluent ‘no time’ remained the primary barrier, but cost was less of a concern. ³⁸

For these reasons, a lack of flexibility, personal or out of pocket expenses, and administrative demands may discourage people from beginning or continuing to volunteer in a specific organisation, or at all.

Costs, such as out-of-pocket expenses, travel, meals, training, specialist software/equipment and financial constraints including having a lower income or being unemployed are often identified as key barriers to volunteering in sport. ^{4, 18, 20, 24, 31, 33, 34}

An analysis of data from AusPlay identifies the rates of volunteering by annual household income. ³⁹

These trends are also found in other Australian and international research:

• The ‘Longitudinal Study of Australian Children 2018 Annual Report’ highlighted that adolescents from high-income families (top third) were more likely to volunteer for sporting and recreation groups than adolescents from low-income families (bottom third). The report suggests that this may be because of the cost of participating in sport and recreation activities. ²⁵
• Data from the 2021/22 United Kingdom [UK] Active Lives survey showed around 10% of weekly sport volunteers were from lower socio-economic backgrounds, although they make up 30% of the total UK population. These figures have been relatively stable across recent years. ^{48, 54}
• In 2015, research by Gemba in New Zealand also found that individuals from higher income households volunteered more frequently and were more likely to continue volunteering. Those from lower household income groups were more likely to volunteer for one-off events. ¹⁵

Although it is not an issue for all volunteers, real or potential out of pocket expenses that aren’t reimbursed can impact the decision to start or continue volunteering. ^{47, 55}

In the 2016 ‘State of Volunteering in Australia’ report, 27% of those surveyed who said they would not volunteer in the future indicated that out of pocket expenses were a key factor in their decision. ⁴⁷

These expenses can include transport or travel (e.g., fuel, parking, vehicle maintenance), technology or telecommunications (e.g., phone, computer, or internet), uniform and/or clothing, and more. ^{18, 47}

The 2016 ‘State of Volunteering in Australia’ report showed that 60% of volunteer respondents incurred out of pocket expenses through their volunteering role. Of the 18% who requested reimbursement, 49% were reimbursed in full, 44% reimbursed in part, and 7% did not receive any reimbursement. ⁴⁷

Other research has found similar figures:

• The 2021 'NSW State of Volunteering Report' found that volunteers in the State on average paid over $1,900 a year to volunteer. Only around 20% of volunteers were reimbursed approximately 39% of their out of pocket expenses. Suggests that volunteers are donating approximately $5.56 per hour to volunteer on top of their time and skills. ⁵⁷
• The 2021 'State of Volunteering in Queensland Report' identified that Queensland volunteers on average over $1,600 a year to volunteer. On average, volunteer-involving organisations are reimbursing only 11.4%, or $182, to volunteers. This means on top of their valuable time and skills, volunteers themselves are donating nearly $4.76 per hour to volunteer. It is noted that this ‘hidden’ cost has the potential to exclude many who cannot afford the act of volunteering. ⁵⁸
• The 2020 ‘State of Volunteering in Victoria’ report estimated that on average volunteering cost Victorian volunteers $1,700 a year, suggesting that volunteer-involving organisations (VIOs) were, on average, reimbursing only one dollar for every eight dollars a volunteer spends on volunteering. This suggests that on top of their valuable time, volunteers were donating nearly $6.70 per hour to volunteer (after reimbursements). ¹³ 
• The 2019 'State of Volunteering Report Tasmania' found that individual volunteers spent on average $990 per hour per year of their own money on volunteering, effectively $4.03 per hour to volunteer. On average, volunteers were reimbursed $70.37 per year, 7% of their out-of-pocket expenses. Less than 8% of volunteers were reimbursed at all. ⁵⁹
• National research by ANU reported by Volunteering Australia in 2022 found that, for those surveyed, 31% of volunteers who incurred expenses in their volunteer role did not apply for reimbursement (even though it was offered), 14% were reimbursed in full, 13% reimbursed in part, and 41% indicated that reimbursement was not available or offered. The average amount that volunteers spent personally on volunteering in the previous 12 months (after reimbursement) was $582.83. 17% of non-volunteers indicated that they do not volunteer due to financial reasons ⁴⁷

As part of the 2016 ‘State of Volunteering in Australia’ report, volunteer involving organisations (VIOs) were also surveyed. Many indicated that they had limited financial resources to commit to volunteering programs or expenses. When asked whether they reimbursed volunteers for out of pocket expenses, 22% said always, 51% said only if pre-approved, 16% occasionally, and 11% never did. ⁴⁷

Suggestions for how to reduce financial, out of pocket expenses for both formal and informal volunteers include providing tax-back measures, vouchers (e.g., parking or fuel vouchers), or providing things like free transport. ^{34, 47} However, these options may require either government or administrative changes for organisations.

Volunteering Australia’s ‘National Standards for Volunteer Involvement’ already recommend that organisations have a policy and procedure for reimbursement of volunteer out of pocket expenses (preferably in full) as part of Standard 2: Commitment to Volunteer Involvement’. ⁵⁶

This requirement sought to ensure that organisations allocated sufficient resources (including financial) to volunteer involvement and that volunteers were not out of pocket for expenses incurred while volunteering for them. ^{44, 47}

Considering that in 2016, 82% of volunteers were not requesting reimbursement from their organisation, and a 2019 report by Volunteering Australia and the Settlement Council of Australia found that only 47% of organisations surveyed were providing any reimbursement to volunteers many organisations do not appear to be meeting this Standard and may not have fully considered the impact this can have on recruitment and retention. ^{44, 47}

Competing commitments over each person’s life course (e.g., increased/decreased work or study periods, having children, retirement, etc.) vary the amount of time they have available to volunteer.

Time pressures, including personal and work commitments, the ‘opportunity cost’ (e.g., taking time away from other valued activities such as other leisure activities, time with family and friends, paid work, etc.) and the inflexibility of volunteering activities are some of the most significant factors impacting people’s willingness to start or continue volunteering. ^{12, 15, 18, 31, 32, 34, 38, 47, 53, 55}

The most recent Australian Bureau of Statistics ‘General Social Survey’ found that: ⁸

• Australians had volunteered for 489.5 million hours in 2020 and 596.2 million hours in 2019.
• The main reason given by people who did not volunteer through an organisation in thesurvey period was 'No time (family / work commitments)' (52%).
• One third (33%) of Australians reported 'Always' or 'Often' feeling rushed for time [which may impact their willingness or ability to volunteer].

Research for the Australian Sports Commission’s ‘Market Segmentation for Volunteers’ found that: ^{6, 12}

• 55% of club sport volunteers volunteered over a season, 24% year-round, and 20% on an irregular or as needed basis. Both seasonal and year-round volunteers generally volunteered at least weekly.
• Regardless of whether volunteering was year-round or seasonal, approximately two-thirds of club sport volunteers (64-67%) volunteered at least weekly, and 52% of weekly club sport volunteers gave more than 10 hours a week.
• Especially in sport, respondents tended to believe that most volunteer roles would be time consuming, highly scheduled, and with little flexibility, e.g., would take up several hours every Saturday morning. People rarely considered that volunteer activities could be more short term, occasional, or ad hoc.
• The overwhelming perception that volunteering required significant time commitment led many to dismiss the idea of volunteering without finding out what might actually be required:
  • 25% of non-volunteers agreed or strongly agreed “there is too much commitment involved in volunteering’ vs 16% of volunteers.
  • 26% of non-volunteers agreed or strongly agreed ‘volunteering does/would take up too much of my time’ vs 16% of volunteers.
• Some volunteers also felt that volunteer roles would require more time than was ‘advertised’ and that they would feel pressured to do more. This was often based on an individuals’ previous experience.

Research suggests that the decision to volunteer involves two distinct time related decisions, the decision to take part in that activity, and deciding how much time to commit. ²²

To reduce time as a barrier, groups for which time is a high cost need volunteering opportunities that require less time (e.g., episodic volunteering, volunteering that can be done from home and/or in a flexible timeframe, or activities requiring only a small amount of time on a regular basis). ³⁴