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Sport and Persons with Disability

Benefits of sport

The physical, psychological and social benefits of participation in sport and physical activity for people with disability are consistent with those experienced by the broader population.

Australian and international research shows a positive relationship between sport and physical activity participation and health and wellbeing outcomes for people with disability, including: cardiovascular and musculoskeletal health; social engagement; increased self-confidence; increased opportunities for independence; making friends; increased fitness; increased technical ability; improved communication skills.

A 2021 scoping review of studies published between 1992 and 2019 also suggests improved employment outcomes linked to sport participation. A direct association between exercise and sport participation and employment and full-time positions was identified in seven studies. Additionally, sixteen studies showed improved health/work-related outcomes, including: occupational performance (i.e., self-care, functional independence); physical fitness (i.e., upper extremity strength, endurance); and, psychological well-being (i.e., self-efficacy).

Sport and physical activity, performed at the appropriate dose for current activity levels and health, is safe for people with disability. However, people with disability are currently less likely to meet physical activity guidelines and more likely to be sedentary and have low levels of physical fitness than the broader population.

Much of the current research tends to be focussed on specific medicalised conditions and may not be applicable to broader population segments. There remains a need for more high-quality research to better understand the health risks and benefits of sport and physical activity for different populations as well as identifying how to maximise health and wellbeing benefits for all.

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

  • Health Promotion for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Laurence Taggart, Wendy Cousins (eds.), McGraw Hill/Open University Press, (2014). The book considers a variety of challenges faced by those with intellectual disabilities, from physical illnesses such as diabetes, epilepsy and sexual health issues, through to issues such as addiction, mental health and ageing.
    • Chapter 16: Physical activity, exercise, and sport, Nankervis, Karen, Cousins, Wendy, Válková, Hana and MacIntyre, Tadhg, pp. 174-182. Substantial empirical evidence confirms that regular participation in physical activity contributes to health in individuals of all ages, gender, and ability. Yet numerous studies have found that people with disabilities are less likely to engage in physical activity, are more sedentary, and tend to be less fit than their peers (Temple et al. 2006). This chapter provides an overview of the evidence that sets out the value of exercise and sport participation by people with an intellectual disability and, where available, the cascading benefits for families and workers. Strategies to promote involvement in exercise and sport are addressed, with a focus on evidence-based strategies that can be incorporated into practice and undertaken in environments that promote community inclusion and experiences. Recommendations for promoting exercise and sport participation for people with intellectual disabilities are also provided.
  • Inclusive sport key to belonging for people with autism, Elise Muller and Andrea Phillips, Special Olympics Australia, (16 October 2020). Autism advocate and Essendon Football Club player Elise Muller tells Andrea Phillips from Special Olympics how sport saved her life, catapulting her from being ruthlessly bullied to winning multiple achievement and leadership awards.
  • Dylan Alcott tells Kurt Fearnley on One Plus One how sport opened doors, and maybe saved his life, One Plus One, ABC News, (23 July 2020). Dylan Alcott says he doesn't know if he would "even be here at all" if it were not for the impact sport has had on his life. Dylan Alcott says the discovery of the social aspect of sport changed his life for the better. The six-time Australian Open champion says he "hated the person I was" before he engaged with sport. He says enhancing the representation of disabled people in Australia will open doors for younger generations.
  • Adaptive Sports Found to Help Children With Disabilities After One Season, Yale School of Medicine, (5 September 2019). Kids participating in adaptive ski and snowboarding clinics reported better quality of life outcomes after one year, according to a new study. “A significant change in the athletes’ perception of their physical well-being occurred, as they were able to participate in a new, physically taxing activity,” the researchers wrote.
  • Exercise for Disabilities, Exercise and Sport Science Australia (ESSA), (December 2021). This eBook outlines a variety of disabilities that are common to Australians and the role exercise can play in managing the disability and helping with daily living. It has been compiled with the help of ESSA accredited exercise professionals and allied health professionals who work every day with people with a disability to provide not only exercise advice, but also support and resources to improve their health and well-being. For people living with a disability, exercise or physical activity provides a wide range of benefits:
    • It improves stamina and muscle strength – this may really help with some forms of disability.
    • Keeping active will reduce the risk of chronic conditions (e.g., arthritis, osteoporosis, diabetes).
    • During exercise, the brain releases endorphins that delivers a feel-good high. This can help ease anxiety and depression, and additionally, lift your mood.
    • Exercising in a group is a great way to try something different, meet new people and become part of the community. This may help reduce the negative stereotypes around people with disabilities.
    • You’ll gain the ability to maintain a higher level of independence, sense of freedom and quality of life.
  • People with disability in Australia, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), (October 2020). People with disability in Australia brings together information from a range of national data sources to contribute to a greater understanding about disability in Australia. Some people with disability face challenges routinely and actively participating in everyday life areas (such as employment) and are more likely to experience poor health, discrimination and violence than those without disability.
  • Physical activity for general health benefits in disabled adults: Summary of a rapid evidence review for the UK Chief Medical Officers’ update of the physical activity guidelines, Brett Smith, Nathalie Kirby, Bethany Skinner, et.al., Public Health England, (October 2018). Disabled people are twice as likely to be inactive when compared to non-disabled people. This report provides a review of the scientific evidence of the health benefits for physical activity specifically for disabled adults. Evidence shows a relationship between engaging in physical activity and positive health outcomes for disabled adults. It is concluded that for substantial health gains disabled adults should do 150 minutes of physical activity at a moderate to vigorous intensity. They should also do 2 sets of challenging strength and balance exercises 2 times per week. Little evidence was found to show that physical activity is unsafe for disabled adults when it is performed at an appropriate dose for their current level of activity and health conditions.
  • ‘Life is team play’: social inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities in the context of Special Olympics, Piritta Asunta, Elina Hasanen, Florian Kiuppis, et.al., Sport in Society, (February 2022). This article provides insights from an empirical study on the meaning of social inclusion for Finnish athletes with intellectual disabilities (ID) who participate in Special Olympics (SO). A further objective was to explore the athletes’ perceptions of the role SO has played in their lives regarding their personal experiences of social inclusion. Data were transcripts of five focus group interviews carried out with a total of 31 participants during the last SO World Winter Games in 2017. The content was analysed with the aim of identifying the main themes in the athletes’ conversations about social inclusion. Three main themes were identified: inclusion as a contrast to past discrimination; inclusion as receiving and providing assistance; and inclusion as participation in teamwork. The results indicate that SO and arguably sport more generally can assist people with ID in moving forward on a path from being excluded toward social inclusion.
  • Youth participation in a wheelchair tennis program from a social relational perspective, Michelle Grenier, Aija Klavina, Lauren Lieberman, et.al., Sport Education and Society, (January 2022). The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of a wheelchair tennis program from the perspective of youth athletes, their caregivers and coaches through the lens of the social-relational model of disability. Data collection included field notes, focus group interviews and semi-structured individual interviews with six wheelchair tennis athletes (four males, two females) and eight adults (four mothers, one father and one grandmother, one program coordinator and one wheelchair tennis coach). Two primary themes linked to both positive and negative experiences were identified: (1) disablism in everyday life, and (2) constructing ‘competent’ identities on the tennis court. The themes, taken together, describe the challenges faced, and the accomplishments achieved by the athletes and their families within a culture that marked them as different.
  • Goalball as a Factor of Physical Rehabilitation of Students with Visual Impairments, Kokhan, Sergey; Romanova, Elena; Nadeina, Luiza; et.al., Palaestra, Volume 35(3), (September 2021). Goalball is a team sport for the blind and people with visual impairments. It is known that the level of physical development of young men with visual impairments lags far behind young people with normal vision. The aim of the paper is to study the influence of the training process of playing goalball on the physical development of students with visual impairments and the control results of the participation of such students in sports tournaments. The experiment (group 1) involved 12 students (blind students and students with visual impairments) who expressed a desire to train and learn how to play goalball, and participate in amateur competitions. The control group (2) consisted of 12 deaf students engaged only in adapted physical education. The research methods included the assessment of speed and strength endurance, flexibility and coordination ability between the two groups. The results of speed and strength endurance in the experimental group are significantly higher than in the control group. The flexion force of both hands increased over the entire observation period: on the right hand - up to 6.5 kg, on the left hand - 3, 9 kg. The difference in the results between groups 1 and 2 was: on the right hand - 4.2 kg., on the left hand - 2.8 kg. At the final testing the result of push-ups from the floor was 2,1 times higher in the experimental group than in the control group. Also, the systematic practice of goalball influenced the accuracy of shots on goal and the average range of throwing the ball, an increase of 28.3%. The growth of physical activity at the lessons of goalball and adapted physical education increased by 7.5 hours per week. The results of the training reflected on the teamwork and the quality of playing practice and the indicators of sports performances.
  • Parents’ Perspectives on Adaptive Sports in Children with Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities, Marion Neyroud and Christopher Newman, children, Volume 8(9), (September 2021). Children with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) need adaptations to participate in sports and it is more difficult for them to access these activities. We investigated the effects of adaptive sports in children with PIMD as perceived by their parents. The parents answered a postal questionnaire exploring the effects of adaptive sports during the 3 days following an activity. The questionnaire explored twelve domains of children’s daily lives, such as sleep and appetite. We calculated a composite score, including all of these domains, to assess whether the children globally benefited from adaptive sports. Of the families, 27/63 responded (participation 42.9%). Four domains improved after the sports activity in an important proportion of children (improvement in 64.0% of children for wellbeing, 57.6% for mood, 56.0% for comfort and 48.1% for sleep). Among the majority of children, the other eight domains remained mostly stable. Three quarters of parents reported a globally positive effect of adapted physical activities on their child. These findings support the further development and provision of adaptive sports for children with severe neurological impairments.
  • Sports Participation, Physical Activity, and Health-Related Fitness in Youth With Chronic Diseases or Physical Disabilities: The Health in Adapted Youth Sports Study, Lankhorst, Kristel; Takken, Tim; Zwinkels, Maremka, et.al., Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, Volume 35(8), pp.2327-2337, (August 2021). Youth with chronic diseases or physical disabilities (CDPD) often show reduced fitness and physical activity (PA) levels and participate less in organized sports compared with healthy peers. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between participation in sports and health-related fitness and PA in youth with CDPD. A total of 163 subjects (mean age 14 years; range 8–19 years) with CDPD were included in this cross-sectional study, with 81 participating in organized sports and 82 not. Subjects were recruited between October 2014 and November 2016. Aerobic and anaerobic fitness, agility, and muscle strength were assessed in the laboratory, whereas PA was monitored in daily life using accelerometry during 1 week. Results show that youth with CDPD participating in organized sports 2 times a week performed better on all outcome measures. They reached a higher peak oxygen uptake (difference of 4.9 ml O2·kg−1·min−1, P = 0.001) compared with their peers not participating in sports. Also, anaerobic fitness, agility, muscle strength, and PA were all positively associated with sports participation. Moreover, the association between sports participation and aerobic fitness was mediated by PA for 31% (P = 0.045). In conclusion, participation in sports is associated with both higher levels of PA and health-related fitness in youth with CDPD. Promotion and stimulation of participation in sports seems a good way to promote health-related fitness as well as a healthy active lifestyle in youth with CDPD.
  • Participation of people living with disabilities in physical activity: a global perspective, Prof Kathleen Martin Ginis, Hidde P van der Ploeg, Prof Charlie Foster, The Lancet, Volume 398(10298), pp.443-455, (July 2021). For the purposes of this Series paper, we did a systematic review, identifying 36 meta-analysis studies in which a physical activity prescription, programme, or intervention was implemented among children, adolescents, or adults with a disability, and one or more cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, cardiometabolic, or mental or brain health outcomes were measured. 33 meta-analyses reported significant effects in favour of intervention versus control groups. Overall, the meta-analyses consistently reported significant positive effects of physical activity on cardiovascular and musculoskeletal health. More than half the meta-analyses of cardiometabolic outcomes reported non-significant effects. Results for mental or brain health were mixed. The physical activity epidemiological evidence base for PLWD tends to be siloed within medicalised conditions rather than being built across all populations, and most disability-related research has focused on improving function rather than health. Overall, there is evidence that PLWD can derive some of the physical activity benefits observed in the general population. The relatively small number of adequately powered studies might explain some of the inconsistencies. The reviews also show that the epidemiology of physical activity in PLWD is an under-researched area, in need of more high-quality studies to better estimate the health risks and benefits of physical activity for different populations and to identify the amounts of physical activity that maximise health benefits.
  • The effects of COVID-19 restrictions on physical activity and mental health of children and young adults with physical and/or intellectual disabilities, Nicola Theis, Natalie Campbell, Julie De Leeuw, et.al., Disability Health Journal, Volume 14(3), (July 2021). The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of COVID-19 lockdown restrictions on physical activity and mental health of children and young adults with physical and/or intellectual disabilities. Parents/carers completed an electronic survey in the UK between June–July 2020 on behalf of their child. The survey asked about physical activity levels and mental health during lockdown compared to before, access to specialist facilities and equipment to aid with physical activity, and the short- and long-term concerns around ongoing lockdown restrictions. Generally, respondents reported negative effects of lockdown restrictions, with 61% reporting a reduction in physical activity levels and over 90% reporting a negative impact on mental health (including poorer behaviour, mood, fitness and social and learning regression). Many respondents cited a lack of access to specialist facilities, therapies and equipment as reasons for this, and raised concerns about the long-term effects of this lack of access on their child’s mental health and physical activity levels. The survey highlights the negative impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on the physical activity levels and mental health of children and young adults with disabilities and highlights the importance of addressing the needs of the disabled community as restrictions are eased.
  • Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior and Well-Being of Adults with Physical Disabilities and/or Chronic Diseases during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Rapid Review, Diederik de Boer,Femke Hoekstra, Kimberley Huetink, et.al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 18(12), (June 2021). This study explored the international literature on physical activity, sedentary behavior and well-being in adults with physical disabilities and/or chronic diseases during the first wave of the pandemic. We included twenty-nine studies involving eleven different types of disabilities or health conditions from twenty-one different countries. Twenty-six studies reported on physical activity, of which one reported an increase during the COVID-19 pandemic, four studies reported no difference, and twenty-one studies reported a decrease. Thirteen studies reported a decline in well-being. Only one study measured sedentary behavior, reporting an increase. Conclusion: Despite the variety in methods used, almost all studies reported negative impacts on physical activity and well-being in people with physical disabilities and/or chronic disease during the first wave of the pandemic. These findings highlight the importance of supporting this population, especially in times of crisis.
  • Exploring Direct and Indirect Associations of Exercise and Sport Participation with Employment among Individuals with Disabilities: A Scoping Review, Varahra A; Ahmed H; Lindsay S, Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, (6 May 2021). The purpose of this scoping review was to provide insight into the direct and indirect associations of exercise and sport participation with employment among persons with disabilities. The research identified 2796 hits. Of which, 23 published between 1992 and 2019 met eligibility criteria. Seven studies identified a direct association between exercise and sport participation with employment and full-time positions. Sixteen studies reported on improved health/work-related outcomes such as occupational performance (i.e., self-care, functional independence), physical fitness (i.e., upper extremity strength, endurance) and psychological well-being (i.e., self-efficacy). Benefits of exercise and sports may be considered to a greater extent, than in the past, in programs that facilitate employment for persons with disabilities. Additional research using longitudinal design should be conducted to further understand the strength of these associations and evaluate whether exercise and sport participation should be incorporated more intensely in vocational programs.
  • Injuries, practices and perceptions of Australian wheelchair sports participants, Osmotherly PG; Thompson E; Rivett DA; et.al., Disability and Health Journal, Volume 14(2), 101044, (April 2021). Members of Wheelchair Sports New South Wales (WSNSW) completed a questionnaire developed from interviews with sports participants. Items examined demographics, sports played, injuries sustained, prevention and management practices, benefits and barriers to participation. Injury types and their management were collected for the previous 12 months. Seventy-one questionnaires were returned. Injuries were sustained by 59% of respondents, with 28% reporting injuries in the past twelve months. Injuries most frequently affected the shoulder (25%), were primarily muscle strains (32%), and commonly caused by contact (48%). Injury prevention strategies were reported by 75% of respondents most commonly involving warm-up and stretching activities. Participation benefits included improvements in fitness (85%), opportunities for friendship (83%), improvements in self-care abilities (83%) and setting/achieving goals (91%). Barriers included cost of sports wheelchairs (68%), availability of competitions/competitors (62%), and distance required for travel for training/competition (71%).
  • Promoting the social inclusion of players with intellectual disabilities: an assessment tool for sport coaches, Roy McConkey, Florian Pochstein, Liz Carlin, et.al., Sport in Society, Volume 24(3), pp.430-439, (2021). Including people with intellectual disability in sport is a challenge for coaches and particularly the inclusion of these players alongside non-disabled peers. Drawing initially on the experiences of 47 coaches recruited through Special Olympics, a self-completed assessment tool was devised that can be used to evaluate the promotion of social inclusion within sport teams and the wider community. The emerging tool was field-tested with 389 coaches in the USA and seven European countries. The resulting 13 or 20 item scale had commendable psychometric properties both in terms of internal and test-retest reliability with evidence also for its ecological and predictive validity. As well as its use as a self-assessment tool within training courses for coaches, it also opens research opportunities into the relationship between this measure of inclusion and outcomes for both the coaches and for the players.
  • Up on the hill: the experiences of adaptive snow sports, Olga Mavritsakis, Michelle Treschow, Delphine Labbé, et.al., Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 43(15), pp.2219-2226, (2021). Adaptive snow sports provide people with disabilities opportunities to develop community, engage in new and meaningful experiences, and to overcome challenges. The accounts given by people with disabilities of their experiences in adaptive snow sports suggest that key factors for participation are the involvement of student-centered instructors and the provision of adaptive equipment.
  • Access to Physical Activity and Sport and the Effects of Isolation and Cordon Sanitaire During COVID-19 for People With Disabilities in Scotland and Canada, Denise Kamyuka, Liz Carlin, Gayle McPherson, Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, (December 2020). People with a disability are more at risk of experiencing inequalities in relation to sporting and physical activity opportunities, COVID-19 The impact of covid-19 for PwD, who are more at risk of further illness through reduced physical activity as evidenced by the WHO (2020) and our research, suggests the need for specific policy responses to help them maintain physical activity and exercise outdoors as well as indoors with others to reduce isolation. Policy makers, governing bodies, disability groups are all trying but at present those measures are not joined up, a collaborative approach will aid longer term solutions. Research shows that a reduction in physical activity can lead to increased levels of loneliness and mental distress. Our research then goes on to show that Covid-19 lockdowns and restrictions are also causing feelings of loneliness and mental distress which impact one's ability to be physically active, thus creating a cycle. Approaches to improving governments' Covid-19 response for PwD should therefore tackle the cycle by addressing biopsychosocial barriers to physical activity. Policy makers and agencies should ensure that PwD have access to and feel safe accessing physical activity alternatives like online solutions or outdoor facilities.
  • Player and Parent Experiences with Child and Adolescent Power Soccer Sport Participation, Elaine Bragg, Nancy Spencer, Shanon Phelan, Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, Volume 40(6), pp.637-650, (April 2020). Power soccer presents opportunities for young athletes who use power wheelchairs to experience competitive team sports. As the focus of rehabilitation is to enhance participation and quality of life, insight into the subjective experience of sport participation could broaden considerations for power wheelchair prescription and inform how therapists share information about community sports and other activities with families. Primary data for this Interpretive Description study were individual interviews with five power soccer athletes, ranging from 11 to 17 years of age, and three parents of power soccer players. Observational field notes were also used. Five inter-related themes were developed: 1) Level playing field, 2) I am an athlete, 3) Important “life lessons” are gained through team sports, 4) The value of belonging to a community, and 5) Role of the rehabilitation community in supporting power mobility sports. Findings of this study demonstrate the benefits and challenges of power sport participation. The results encourage therapists to share information about sport opportunities with families and to consider a broad range of contexts when assessing for power mobility.
  • Effectiveness of surf therapy for children with disabilities, Emily Clapham, Linda Lamont, Minsuk Shim, et.al., Disability and Health Journal, Volume 13(1), 100828, (January 2020). The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of an eight-week surfing intervention on various physical fitness measures in 71 children with disabilities such as autism spectrum disorder, down syndrome, global developmental delays, and cerebral palsy. The study also sought to compare the differences in overall fitness levels between the surf therapy group and an unstructured pool playgroup. Researchers predicted significant differences in the surf therapy group. The results demonstrated significant improvements in core strength (p = 0.00), upper body strength (p = 0.00), flexibility (p = 0.01) and cardiorespiratory endurance (p = 0.00) in the surfing group. However, there were no significant differences in overall fitness levels between the surfing and unstructured pool playgroups. Body composition measurements on the surfing group demonstrated a significant reduction in total body fat % (p = 0.016) and fat free mass (p = 0.008) and a significant improvement in bone mineral density (p = 0.004) pre to post surf therapy.
    Conclusions: This research demonstrated the effectiveness and physiological benefits of surf therapy for children with selected disabilities.
  • ‘A level playing field’: Young people's experiences of wheelchair basketball as an enabling place, Bates Laura, Kearns Robin, Witten Karen, et.al., Health and Place, Volume 60, 102192, (November 2019). Using a novel case-study of a youth wheelchair basketball team in Auckland, New Zealand, we investigate the experiences of young people with physical disabilities in recreational sports places. We consider the ‘enabling places’ created by this sport, which can enhance disabled young people's wellbeing and social inclusion. Semi-structured interviews with the team's players and coordinators revealed logistical and societal challenges associated with facilitating youth-oriented sports, as well as those encountered by team members personally. They also identified physical health and social benefits experienced through involvement in wheelchair basketball. The material, social and affective dimensions of participants' experiences of wheelchair basketball elucidate the capacity for the sport, and its team members and settings, to affirm young people's identity and place-in-the-world. We conclude that youth-specific, inclusive sports generate enabling places that enhance young people's social inclusion, wellbeing and life enjoyment.
  • Managing sport volunteers with a disability: Human resource management implications, Pam Kappelides, Jennifer Spoor, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(5), pp.694-707, (November 2019). The authors examine the benefits and barriers to including volunteers with a disability in three Australian sport and recreation organisations, as well as the potential human resource management implications. The authors draw on interviews with sport volunteers with disability, staff from sport organisations, and recipients of services from volunteers with disability conducted in 2016–2017. Researchers have not previously examined these diverse perspectives, but they are important for understanding how to include and support sport volunteers with disability. Analysis of the interviews revealed a wide range of benefits of including volunteers with disability including social acceptance, social inclusion and personal development; but both volunteers and organisations identified numerous barriers to volunteering, including negative attitudes, personal factors, organisational factors and lack of social inclusion. Based on the results of this study, the authors develop recommendations for human resource management practices and policies to support volunteers with a disability in sport and recreation organisations, which are organised around an ability-motivation-opportunity framework. The results suggest that organisations need to create an environment that facilitates open, two-way communication with volunteers with a disability about their needs and wants. There also should be training and education to all volunteers and staff around an inclusive workplace culture.
  • Self-Perceived Psychophysical Well-Being of Young Competitive Swimmers With Physical or Intellectual Impairment, Luca Puce, Lucio Marinelli, Nicola G. Girtler, et.al., Perceptual and Motor Skills, Volume 126(5), pp.862-885, (October 2019). The objective of this observational cross-sectional study was to investigate the role of competitive sport practice in enhancing self-perceived psychophysical well-being of some select participants, using the Psychological General Well-Being Index and the Short Form-12 indices. We recruited at national events 100 young Italian competitive swimmers affected by physical or intellectual impairment. These respondents' results were compared with those of a control group of 100 Italian participants who did not practice competitive sport but who were also affected by physical or intellectual impairment, randomly selected from rehabilitation clinics and communities of young people with disabilities. Scores of psychological and emotional well-being were higher by 40% or more for the practitioners of competitive sport. While our study's results suggest possible positive psychophysical benefits to competitive sport practice for young people affected by physical or intellectual impairment, longitudinal research is needed to be certain that our results are not due to self-selection into sports participation of those persons with disabilities who have a uniquely higher sense of well-being.
  • Adaptive Skiing/Snowboarding Affects the Quality of Life of Children With Disabilities, David Frumberg, Alexis Gerk, Patrick Autruong, Palaestra, Volume 33(3), (August 2019). Seventy-six athletes met inclusion criteria. After one year, athletes demonstrated significant improvement in physical well-being and bullying; guardians reported improvement in six of the 10 HRQL domains. Twenty-nine athletes met criteria for the long-term cohort, reporting significant improvements in financial resources, peers and social support, and bullying, but a significant decrease in self-perception. Parents reported improvements in financial resources and bullying. Perceived changes in HRQL of children with disabilities are evident after one season of participation, and guardians are more likely to report significant improvements than child-athletes.
  • Sport Intervention Programs (SIPs) to Improve Health and Social Inclusion in People with Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review, Lidia Scifo, Carla Chicau Borrego, Diogo Monteiro, et.al., Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, Volume 4(3), (August 2019). This review discusses the beneficial effects of sport intervention programs (SIPs) in people with ID, and aims to provide an overview of the scientific literature in order to identify the main factors influencing the participation of people with ID in SIPs. Twelve papers were analyzed and compared. The results show a large variety in examined SIPs, concerning participants’ age and disability, intervention characteristics and context, as well as measures and findings. The main factors essential for people with ID partaking in SIPs appeared to be suitable places for the SIP development, adequate implementation of physical activity (PA) programs in school and extra-school contexts, education, and the training of teachers and instructors. The literature review highlights the relevance of using SIPs in order to improve physical and psychological health, as well as increase social inclusion in populations with ID. SIPs should be included in multifactor intervention programs. Nevertheless, the need is recognized for stakeholders to adopt specific practice and policy in promoting social inclusion in order to organize intervention strategies which are able to provide quality experiences in sport and physical activity for people with ID.
  • A qualitative study of active participation in sport and exercise for individuals with multiple sclerosis, Moira Smith, Bridee Neibling, Gavin Williams, et.al., Physiotherapy Research International, Volume 24(3), e1776, (July 2019). The aim of this study was to explore the experience of participation in sport and exercise for individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) with minimal disability. The objectives were to gain an understanding of key factors that influence participation in sport and exercise and to determine support required by individuals with MS to participate in their choice of sport and exercise for as long as possible. Sixteen individuals participated; 63% of whom regularly participated in sport or exercise. All participants viewed sport and exercise positively and identified inherent benefits of exercise. Five key themes emerged to describe the experience of participating in sport and exercise: “personally engaging with exercise,” “influencing barriers and enablers of exercise,” “sustaining independence,” “integrating exercise into lifestyle,” and “getting the balance right.” Most participants felt that advice and guidance from health professionals about the optimum mode and dose (how much and how often) of exercise was lacking.
  • Impact of Adaptive Sports Participation on Quality of Life, Diaz R; Miller EK; Kraus E; et.al., Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Review, Volume 27(2), pp.73-82, (June 2019). The health benefits of regular recreational physical activity are well known in reducing secondary health consequences of a sedentary lifestyle in the general population. However, individuals with physical disabilities participate less frequently in recreational activity compared with those without disabilities. Although evidence on the impact of recreational physical activity on quality of life in this population is in its infancy, regular recreational and sports activity participation has shown to have a positive association with improvements in quality of life, life satisfaction, community reintegration, mood, and employment in those with disabilities. Facilitators of participating in adaptive sports include a desire to improve social support, physical fitness, health, and fun. Unfortunately, those with disabilities face numerous barriers to participate in adaptive sports including accessibility, transportation, awareness, finances, and physical and cognitive impairments. Further studies are needed to investigate facilitators and barriers to participating in adaptive sports to capitalize on the physical and psychosocial benefits of regular recreational activity. The aim of this article is to review the available literature on the effects of adaptive sports participation on quality of life.
  • Quality of Life among Assistive Technology Users: What is the Paralympic Sport Contribution? Beatriz Lima Magalhães, Lucimar Pinheiro Rosseto, Thiara Melo Yasuda, et.al., Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, Volume 22(3), pp.57-63, (June 2019). The purpose of this study was to verify the sports participation in the perception of quality of life among assistive technology users. Twenty-three subjects had some type of physical disability for more than 1 yr. They were divided into 2 groups: (a) Paralympic Group (n = 16); and (b) Control Group (n = 11). The subjects were between 18 and 47 yrs of age. They were regular users of some assistive technology. All participants completed a form used for general characterization and completed the WHOQOL-BREF quality of life questionnaire. The significance level was set at an alpha level of P<0.05. The findings indicate that the Paralympic sport improves the perception of quality of life among assistive technology users.
  • More Than Just a Game: The Public Health Impact of Sport and Physical Activity for People With Disabilities (The 2017 DeLisa Lecture), Blauwet, Cheri A., American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Volume 98(1), pp.1-6, (January 2019). Although people with disabilities make up a large proportion of our global population and are known to be disproportionately impacted by sedentary lifestyles leading to chronic disease, programs promoting physical activity often fail to address their unique needs. Both environmental and attitudinal factors also act as barriers to full participation. In this context, increasing evidence shows the positive impact of physical activity and sport on outcomes related to physical health, mental health, community participation, and, in some cases, neurorecovery for people with disabilities. Thus, participation should be seen not only as a medical intervention but also as a rights-based issue. We, as physiatrists, can be agents of change by promoting concepts of universal design and inclusion in physical activity and sport programs.
  • Bone quality in young adults with intellectual disability involved in adapted competitive football, Vicente Lizondo, Jordi Caplliure-Llopis, Dolores Escrivá, et.al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 19(6), pp.850-859, (2019). The objective of this study was to analyse bone quality parameters of football players with intellectual disability (ID) participating in adapted competitive football. Sixty-seven male football players with ID were studied: 22 with Down syndrome (DS) and 45 without DS. The average age was 26 years (range: 16 ̶ 50 years). A group of 25 age-matched sedentary individuals with ID (11 DS and 14 non-DS) and another group of 20 healthy participants of the same age group not involved in competitive football were comparatively analysed. In summary, the ID population actively involved in football showed higher values of bone mass parameters than their sedentary ID and healthy peers. The participants with non-DS ID showed a higher prevalence of osteoporosis than the football players with DS. Participation in sports seems to prevent bone loss in individuals with ID.
  • Associations of sport participation with self-perception, exercise self-efficacy and quality of life among children and adolescents with a physical disability or chronic disease—a cross-sectional study, Saskia J. te Velde, Kristel Lankhorst, Maremka Zwinkels, et.al., Sports Medicine - Open, Volume 4, article number: 38, (August 2018). The aim of the current study is to assess the association of sports participation with psychosocial health and with quality of life, among children and adolescents with a disability. In a cross-sectional study, 195 children and adolescents with physical disabilities or chronic diseases (11% cardiovascular, 5% pulmonary, 8% metabolic, 8% musculoskeletal/orthopaedic, 52% neuromuscular and 9% immunological diseases and 1% with cancer), aged 10-19 years, completed questionnaires to assess sports participation, health-related quality of life (DCGM-37), self-perceptions and global self-worth (SPPC or SPPA) and exercise self-efficacy. Regression analyses showed that those who reported to participate in sports at least twice a week had more beneficial scores on the various indicators compared to their peers who did not participate in sport or less than twice a week. Those participating in sports scored better on all scales of the DCGM-37 scale, on the scales for feelings of athletic competence and children but not adolescents participating in sports reported greater social acceptance. Finally, we found a strong association between sport participation and exercise self-efficacy. This study provides the first indications that participating in sports is beneficial for psychosocial health among children and adolescents with a disability. However, more insight is needed in the direction of the relationships.
  • Positive Impact of Participation in Wheelchair Rugby: A Review of the Literature, Nathan Perkins, Palaestra, Volume 32(2), (August 2018). This article examines wheelchair rugby participation, activities of daily living, and self-efficacy among individuals with physical disabilities. Participation in wheelchair rugby is beneficial for individuals with physical disabilities in relation to performing activities of daily living. Generally, activities of daily living are very problematic for a majority of individuals with physical disabilities. Individuals with physical disabilities who participate in wheelchair rugby have high self-efficacy beliefs in performing activities of daily living. Also, selfefficacy beliefs are associated with sport performance. Finally, provided are recommendations for additional participation in wheelchair rugby and future research.
  • Participant-Reported Benefits of Involvement in an Adaptive Sports Program: A Qualitative Study, Emma Lape, Jeffrey Katz, Elena Losina, et.al., PM&R, Volume 10(5), pp.507-515, (May 2018). Participants were recruited from among 134 adults who registered for the sports program in 2013-2014. Participants with mobility or sensory impairment, absence of cognitive impairment, and English proficiency were included. The 90 former participants with adequate contact information were contacted, and 17 participated in the focus groups. Analysis identified 5 themes: physical well-being and health/safety; interpersonal and social relationships; intrapersonal and beliefs/attitudes; physical environment; and access. Participants experienced participation both as physically beneficial and as transformative in terms of how they view themselves. However, programs drew on limited personal resources and sometimes presented a perceived risk of injury. Finding information about and transportation to programs was a challenge. Participants formed an informal community that modeled what athletes with disabilities are capable of, helping to overcome initial doubts. To gain the benefits of participation, athletes overcame significant barriers, several of which may be modifiable, including transportation and difficult-to-find information about program offerings. The importance of community and raising awareness of athletes' own abilities suggests a key role for mentorship. Our study contributes to the understanding of experiential aspects that motivate participation in adaptive sports.
  • Effects of a School-Based Sports Program on Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Cardiometabolic Health in Youth With Physical Disabilities: Data From the Sport-2-Stay-Fit Study, Maremka Zwinkels, Olaf Verschuren, Astrid Balemans, et.al., frontiers in Pediatrics, (26 March 2018). This controlled clinical trial included 71 children and adolescents from four schools for special education [mean age 13.7 (2.9) years, range 8–19, 55% boys]. Participants had various chronic health conditions including cerebral palsy (37%), other neuromuscular (44%), metabolic (8%), musculoskeletal (7%), and cardiovascular (4%) disorders. Before recruitment and based on the presence of school-based sports, schools were assigned as sport or control group. School-based sports were initiated and provided by motivated experienced physical educators. The sport group (n = 31) participated in a once-a-week school-based sports program for 6 months, which included team sports. The control group (n = 40) followed the regular curriculum. Anaerobic performance was assessed by the Muscle Power Sprint Test. Secondary outcome measures included aerobic performance, VO2 peak, strength, physical activity, blood pressure, arterial stiffness, body composition, and the metabolic profile. A significant improvement of 16% in favor of the sport group was found for anaerobic performance (p = 0.003). In addition, the sport group lost 2.8% more fat mass compared to the control group (p = 0.007). No changes were found for aerobic performance, VO2 peak, physical activity, blood pressure, arterial stiffness, and the metabolic profile.
  • Perception of Employment by the Veterans Participating in the National Veterans Wheelchair Games: A Survey Study, William Kim, Leah Lee, Daniel Lans, et.al., PM&R, Volume 10(3), pp.263-268, (March 2018). Employment in those with disability is an important rehabilitation goal, along with achieving some measure of functional independence and is at the same time one of the most difficult goals to achieve. The number of people with disabilities participating in adaptive sports has been increasing steadily over the years. A few studies have looked at the relationship between physical fitness and employment status in those with disability, but there have been no studies that focused on the results of organized adaptive sports events affecting employment outcome. Veterans who participated at the 2015 NVWG were given the opportunity to complete a 2-page survey. Survey participants received $5.00 gift card as compensation. A total of 338 survey participants; 36 surveys were excluded due to incompletion. 50% of the participants stated that the NVWG made a difference in attaining employment. Those currently working were 1.5 times more likely to say that the NVWG had a positive effect on employment than those not currently working. Those who felt that the NVWG had a positive effect on employment attended 3-4 more wheelchair games on average than those reporting that the NVWG did not have an impact on employment.
  • "I think I became a swimmer rather than just someone with a disability swimming up and down:" Paralympic athletes perceptions of self and identity development, Pack, Stephen; Kelly, Sasha; Arvinen-Barrow, Monna, Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 39(20), pp.2063-2070, (September 2017). The purpose of this study was to explore the role of swimming on Paralympic athletes' perceptions of self and identity development. During semi-structured interviews, five Paralympic swimmers (aged 20-24 years) were asked questions about their swimming career, perceptions of self, integration, and impairment. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis yielded three superordinate themes: (a) "One of the crowd"; none of the participants viewed themselves as disabled, nor as supercrips; these perceptions stemmed from family-, school-, and swimming-related experiences, (b) "Becoming me"; participation in swimming facilitated self- and social-acceptance, and identity development, and c) "A badge of honor"; swimming presented opportunity to present and reinforce a positive identity. Swimming experiences enabled the participants to enhance personal and social identities, integrate through pro-social mechanisms, and to develop a career path following retirement from competition.
  • Opportunities and Benefits for Powerchair Users Through Power Soccer, Michael Jeffress, William Brown, Adapted physical activity quarterly, Volume 34(3), pp.235-55, (July 2017). Power soccer (or powerchair football), the first competitive team sport for users of motorized wheelchairs, is receiving increased attention among people with disabilities, healthcare professionals, and academics. The present study provides a qualitative analysis of the experiences of 34 American power soccer athletes. Participant observation and in-depth interviews with 11 female and 23 male athletes were conducted between 2007 and 2013. Results indicate that involvement in power soccer provides participants with an increased sense of empowerment, acquisition of social capital, and psychosocial benefits, including a deep satisfaction of the desire to participate in competitive sports and an opportunity to be independent. Implications of these findings for improving the quality of life of people with physical disabilities and for future research are discussed.
  • Psychosocial effects of competitive Boccia program in persons with severe chronic disability, Sharon Barak, Nuria Mendoza-Laiz, Maria Teresa Gutierrez Fuentes, et.al., Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, Volume 53(6), pp.973-988, (January 2016). People with severe physical disabilities may experience psychosocial problems. Boccia is one sport that athletes with severe disability can engage in, but no information on the effects of Boccia on psychosocial outcomes for participants with severe disability is available. Therefore, we analyzed the effects of Boccia on psychosocial outcomes in persons with severe disabilities. The study included two competitive Boccia groups: independent competitive (IC) (n = 9) and nonindependent competitive (NIC) (n = 7), as well as a recreational Boccia group (n = 14) and control subjects (n = 13) (mean age = 46.46 +/- 10.75). All participants underwent a rehabilitation program. The rehabilitation program had a general positive effect on the psychosocial status of individuals with severe physical disabilities. However, the competitive Boccia groups demonstrated a greater number of favorable changes, suggesting an added value of participation in Boccia.
  • The effect of adaptive sports on employment among people with disabilities, Amy Lastuka, Michael Cottingham, Disability and Rehabilitation, Volume 38(8), pp.742-748, (2016). The purpose of this study is to analyse the role of adaptive sport in predicting employment for individuals with physical disabilities. Survey data was collected on employment and other covariates including education, age, age at disability onset, veteran status and athletic classification from 140 mobility impaired athletes who play either wheelchair rugby or wheelchair basketball. One hundred and thirty-one participants were studied. Analysis shows that playing an additional year of adaptive sport is associated with an approximately 4% increase in likelihood of employment. Education and duration of disability are found to be positive predictors of employment, while veteran status and severity of injury are negative predictors of employment. Age of disability onset is not found to be a predictor of employment when other controls are included. This result indicates that a substantial economic benefit would result from increased participation in adaptive sport, and therefore may justify additional funding to expand adaptive sport programs.
  • Sport in the lives of young people with intellectual disabilities: Negotiating disability, identity and belonging, Smith L, Wedgwood N, Llewellyn G, et.al., Journal of Sport for Development, Volume 3(5), (December 2015). Research on the role of sport in the lives of people with intellectual disabilities primarily focuses on improving fitness, health and social interactions. Yet sport is not only a form of physical exercise, competition or leisure pursuit — it’s also a powerful social institution within which social structures and power relations are reproduced and, less frequently, challenged. This paper provides insights into the role of sport and physical activity in the lives of four young Australians with intellectual disabilities or cognitive limitations from their own perspectives. Data from life history interviews elicits rich and in-depth insights, revealing the meanings these young people give to their sporting experiences, which include (but also go beyond) concerns with fitness, health and social interactions. Although not representative of all young people with intellectual disabilities, these four young people use sport to negotiate complex emotional worlds around disability, identity, and belonging — much like their physically impaired counterparts.
  • Impact of Organized Sports on Activity, Participation, and Quality of Life in People With Neurologic Disabilities, Sahlin KB; Lexell J, PM&R: the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation, Volume 7(10), pp.1081-1088, (October 2015). Physical activity and exercise is the mainstay of chronic disease prevention and health maintenance for all people with and without a disability, and clear evidence exists of the benefits among various populations with neurologic disabilities. However, the potential benefits of organized sports for people with neurologic disabilities are not as well explored. In this narrative review, current evidence regarding the impact of organized sports on activity, participation, and quality of life in people with neurologic disabilities of all ages is summarized, and facilitators of and barriers to participation in sports for this population are discussed. The articles reviewed were divided into 2 sets: (1) children and adolescents and (2) adults. The subjects of almost all of the studies were persons with a spinal cord injury. Children and adolescents with a disability who engaged in sports reported self-concept scores close to those of able-bodied athletes, as well as higher levels of physical activity. Adults with a spinal cord injury who engaged in organized sports reported decreased depression and anxiety, increased life satisfaction, and increased opportunity for gainful employment compared with nonathletic persons with disabilities. General facilitators, regardless of age, were fitness, fun, health, competence, and social aspects, whereas overall barriers were lack of or inappropriate medical advice and facilities, decreased self-esteem, poor finances, dependency on others, and views held by others.
  • Psychosocial impact of involvement in the Special Olympics, Crawford, C., Burns, J. and Fernie, B., Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 45-46, pp.93-102, (2015). This study aimed to compare the psychosocial impact of involvement in sport through the SO to no or limited sports involvement, for a sample of people with intellectual disabilities. One hundred and one participants were recruited either through the SO or Mencap. Data were collected through the completion of validated questionnaires by one to one interviews with the participants. Analysis revealed that self-esteem, quality of life, and stress were all significantly associated with SO involvement. Logistic regression analysis was used to explore whether scores on these variables were able to predict group membership. Self-esteem was found to be a significant predictor of group membership, those in the SO having the highest self-esteem. The findings provide further evidence of a positive association between sport involvement and increased psychological wellbeing, especially for those involved in the SO.
  • Mental health and social participation skills of wheelchair basketball players: A controlled study, Giovanni Fiorilli, Enzo Iuliano, Giovanna Aquino, et.al., Research in Developmental Disabilities, Volume 34(11), pp.3679-3685, (November 2013). The aim of this study was to assess differences in psychological well-being, symptomatic psychological disorders and social participation, between competitive wheelchair basketball participants and those non-participants. Forty-six wheelchair participants, 24 Basketball players (aged 35.60 ± 7.56) and 22 non-players (aged 36.20 ± 6.23), completed three validated self-report questionnaires.
  • Participation in Organized Sports Is Positively Associated with Employment in Adults with Spinal Cord Injury, Blauwet, Cheri; Sudhakar, Supreetha; Doherty, Ashley, et.al., American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Volume 92(5), pp.393-401, (May 2013). In the adults with chronic spinal cord injury, participation in organized sports was positively associated with employment. Further studies are necessary to determine the causative nature of this association and how various factors related to sports participation may contribute.
  • Perceived exercise benefits and barriers among power wheelchair soccer players, J P Barfield, Laurie A Malone, Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, Volume 50(2), pp.231-238, (April 2013). Lack of exercise is a major risk factor for secondary conditions among persons dependent upon motorized wheelchairs. Power wheelchair soccer is a unique exercise opportunity for this population, and understanding factors that influence exercise decision-making is necessary for clinicians to help those in motorized chairs reduce their secondary risk. Therefore, this study examined differences in perceived benefits and barriers to exercise among power wheelchair soccer players using a mixed-methods analysis. The most common perceived benefit to exercise was "Exercising lets me have contact with friends and persons I enjoy." Post hoc comparisons of quantitative data indicated that persons with muscular dystrophy perceived exercise to be significantly less important than did other disability groups (p < 0.05). "Exercise is hard work for me," "Exercise tires me," and "There are too few places for me to exercise" were the most common perceived barriers. These findings can assist with development of exercise opportunities for power wheelchair users.
  • An Evaluation of the Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund, Richardson E and Papathomas A, Loughborough University, (2013). This report evaluates the social and personal development impact of the International Tennis Federation’s (ITF) Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund (WTDF). This is one of the first scientific studies of its kind to investigate how participation in wheelchair tennis through this program affects the lives of those individuals involved. The program operates in 39 countries. The study found that involvement in wheelchair tennis led to numerous psychological and social benefits, which transferred into other domains of life. The psychological benefits included increased self-confidence and empowerment (particularly for women), increased opportunities for independence, and improved perceptions of persons with a disability. The program also created opportunities, such as sports scholarships for competitors and career pathways in coaching. Wheelchair tennis was also shown to have the potential to improve an individual’s self-perception. “I had a negative mentality” said one participant, “But, as time goes, I grow up and I realise that I don’t have to be ashamed of myself or who I am”. Players involved in the WTDF experience reported an improved social life, both through making friends and as a result of greater self-confidence. Participants felt wanted, supported, and worthy of someone else’s time. The program also helps to challenge the view society takes on disability.
  • Promoting social inclusion through unified sports for youth with intellectual disabilities: A five-nation study, McConkey R, Dowling S, hassan D and Menke S, Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, Volume 57(10), pp.923-935, (2013). This study examined social inclusion for young athletes with intellectual disabilities. Although the promotion of social inclusion through sports has received increased attention with physical disability groups, this is not the case for children and adults with intellectual disability who experience marked social isolation. The study evaluated the outcomes from the Youth Unified Sports Program, paying particular attention to the processes that were perceived to enhance social inclusion. The Youth Unified Sports program of Special Olympics combines athletes with intellectual disabilities and those without intellectual disabilities (called partners) of similar skill level in the same sports teams for training and competition. Alongside the development of sporting skills, the program offers athletes a platform to socialise with peers and to take part in similar experiences within their community. Unified football and basketball teams from five countries—Germany, Hungary, Poland, Serbia and Ukraine—participated in this study. Analysis revealed that across all countries and both sports there were four processes that were perceived to facilitate social inclusion for athletes with an intellectual disability: (1) the personal development of athletes and partners; (2) the creation of inclusive and equal bonds; (3) the promotion of positive perceptions of athletes, and; (4) building alliances within local communities. The study found that Unified Sports provides a vehicle for promoting the social inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities that is theoretically credible in terms of social capital scholarship and which contains lessons for advancing social inclusion in other contexts.
  • Young Athletes Program: Impact on Motor Development, Paddy Favazza, Gary Siperstein, Susan Zeisel, et.al., Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 30(3), pp.235-253, (2013). This study examined the effectiveness of the Young Athletes program to promote motor development in preschool-aged children with disabilities. In the study, 233 children were randomly assigned to a control group or the Young Athletes (YA) intervention group which consisted of 24 motor skill lessons delivered 3 times per week for 8 weeks. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) showed that children who participated in the YA intervention exhibited mean gains of 7–9 months on the Peabody Developmental Motor Subscales (PDMS) compared with mean gains of 3–5 months for the control group. Children in the YA intervention also exhibited significant gains on the gross motor subscale of the Vineland Teacher Rating Form (VTRF). Teachers and parents reported benefits for children not only in specific motor skills, but also kindergarten readiness skills and social/play skills. The necessity for direct and intentional instruction of motor skills, as well as the challenges of involving families in the YA program, are discussed.
  • The Paralympic Movement: Using Sports to Promote Health, Disability Rights, and Social Integration for Athletes With Disabilities, Cheri Blauwet, Stuart Willick, PM&R, Volume 4(11), pp.851-856, (November 2012). Competitive sports for people with disabilities has grown rapidly over the past several decades, and opportunities for participation are increasingly available throughout the spectrum from developmental to elite. The Paralympic Games, seen as the pinnacle sporting event that represents the broader Paralympic Movement, has provided a platform to showcase the abilities of people with disabilities while also serving as a catalyst for disability rights through ensuring integration, equality of opportunity, and accessibility of the built environment. Concurrently, media coverage of the Paralympic Games has led to an increased awareness of opportunities for sport participation for individuals with disabilities and, with it, the adjustment of norms regarding expectations for exercise as a component of preventive health. In addition, there is evidence of the power of sports to stimulate confidence, self-efficacy, and a self-perceived high quality of life for individuals with disabilities above and beyond the basic benefits to cardiometabolic fitness. When taken together, the promotion of health, disability rights, and social integration through sports has the power to transform the lives of those who participate and to further stimulate the expansion of opportunities available to the next generation of athletes with disabilities.
  • Personal development of participants in special Olympics unified sports teams, Wilski M, Nadolska A, Dowling S, et.al., Human Movement, Volume 13(3), pp.271-279, (2012). This study, conducted in Serbia, Poland, Hungary, Ukraine and Germany, identifies the impact of the Special Olympics' Unified Sports program on the personal development of its participants. Interviews collected personal histories from 221 participants. Athletes reported improvements in their abilities on the field as well as increased fitness and technical ability. They emphasised the importance of team-work and trust between athletes, including increased confidence, self-esteem and communication skills. Friendships were a central and vital aspect of taking part in the teams. The evaluation suggests that the benefits of participation transcend national boundaries and cultures at least within a European context.
  • Developing the social skills of young adult Special Olympics athletes, Alexander M, Smeltzer A, Dummer G and Denton, Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, Volume 46(2), pp.297.310, (2011). This study aimed to determine whether young adult Special Olympics participants could develop, generalise and then maintain key social skills through a short Social Skills and Sports program that combined classroom activities and sport (soccer). The skills under examination were eye contact, contributing relevant information and turn taking. Using qualitative methods that included observation, interviews and questionnaires, the researchers found that all participants had successfully increased their ability to demonstrate at least one of the targeted skills and had generalised those skills to other settings. Participants were able to maintained these skills some five weeks following the termination of the program. Furthermore, some participants developed additional social skills, including standing at an appropriate distance and maintaining conversation.

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