Cost

Although there are many factors that influence sports participation, the relatively 'high' cost is consistently identified in the literature, although financial cost is not always the primary consideration.

Time commitment to organised sports participation is also often seen as a 'cost' and therefore, becomes a potential barrier. This includes the time commitment by the participant and, in the case of a child, the time commitment of parents and family.
Organised sport registration fees can vary substantially by sport, age of participants, and also may and may not include additional expenses such as uniforms or game fees.
Additional costs, such as transportation or social costs (i.e. other activities that participants could be doing instead), can also be significant.
Voluntary service within the sports club system, particularly for parents, can also be viewed as a social or time cost, over-and-above the monetary outlay for club membership, travel, training, and competitions.

Emerging trends suggest that these various 'cost' factors, and in particular time and social costs, have made alternative forms of physical activity and recreation in less structured environments (compared to clubs) more attractive.

Financial cost

There is limited detailed data available on the direct financial costs of sport participation, and in particular on how costs vary between different sports/activities or geographical location (e.g. states, territories, regional, metropolitan, etc.). What is included, registration, match fees, uniforms, equipment, travel, etc. is often also unclear when looking at the data, or comparing sources.

The AusPlay survey collects information on the amounts individuals and parents report paying for themselves or their children to participate in sport and physical activities. The most recent results (October 2021) indicate that:

Adults (aged over 15 years)

58.2% of participating adults pay money to an organisation or venue to participate in sport or physical activity each year.
The average (mean) cost per year was AU$1000. Across all age groups there isn't a significant difference between costs for men (AU$996) or women (AU$1004).
Median payments broken down by sports and recreation clubs and associations average around AU$550 per year, suggesting that there is significant cost variance, and possibly multiple sports, or other activities (such as gym memberships or private training and coaching) that are included in the mean cost per year figures.

Children (0-14 years)

96.4% of participating children (0-14 years) take part in activities at paid organisations/venues.
The average (mean) amount paid to participate was AU$970 per year. Parents appear to spend more on girls activities than boys, AU$1166 for girls versus AU$774 for boys.
Median payments broken down by sports and recreation clubs and associations are around AU$600 per year, suggesting that there is significant cost variance, and possibly multiple sports, or other activities (such as private dance or swimming lessons) included in the average spend across all activities.

Recognising that financial cost is often a barrier several Australian state and territory governments currently offer 'sport vouchers' to parents to help off-set the costs of children participating in sport. More information is available in the Participation Grants and Funding topic.

Resources and reading

How Kids’ Sports Became a $15 Billion Industry, Sean Gregory, Time, (24 August 2017). Across the nation, kids of all skill levels, in virtually every team sport, are getting swept up by a youth-sports economy that increasingly resembles the pros at increasingly early ages. At the high end, families can spend more than 10% of their income on registration fees, travel, camps and equipment.
Which junior winter sport is the most affordable for you? See our fees guide for the upcoming season, Brayden Heslehurst, Quest Newspapers/Courier Mail, (23 February 2017). Compares the average upfront registration costs of several popular sports in the Brisbane area including: Australian rules football; rugby league; netball; rugby union; hockey; and football (soccer). Costs range from AU$195 to AU$415.
The troubling price of playing youth sports, Mark Hyman, Assistant Teaching Professor of Management and Tourism Studies, George Washington University, The Conversation, (3 June 2015). The escalating costs [of youth sport] are a growing concern on sidelines and in bleachers across this country. Ultimately, the price of play threatens something fundamental about sports for our kids: the expectation of a level playing field and an egalitarian spirit.
Is local sport too pricey?, ABC RN, (5 May 2014). Radio interview with Anthony Moore, General Manager, Participation and Sustainable Sports with the Australian Sports Commission; Tom Godfrey, Choice; and Sonya, Mother of three sons who play AFL.

Barriers to voluntary participation in sport for children: a systematic review, Sarah Somerset and Derek J. Hoare, BMC Pediatrics, Volume 18, article 47, (February 2018). Policy makers, parents and teachers should all be aware that ‘cost’ and ‘time’ are key barriers to participation in sport. More local sports opportunities are needed where costs are reduced. Schools and local clubs could better work together to provide more affordable local opportunities to increase children’s participation in sport.
Can't play, won't play: longitudinal changes in perceived barriers to participation in sports clubs across the child-adolescent transition, Basterfield L, Gardner L, Reilly J, et.al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 2(1), (March 2016). This longitudinal study of children and adolescents uses an ecological model of physical activity to assess changes in barriers to participation in sports clubs and to identify age-specific and weight-specific targets for intervention. The analysis showed that barriers at age 9 were predominantly of a physical or environmental nature. Young children relied upon parental involvement for transport, costs and permission to participate; also, there was a lack of suitable club infrastructure. At age 12 years the perceived barriers were predominantly classed as intrapersonal. Reponses for not participating in sport included – it’s boring and my friends don’t go to sport. At both ages weight status was not perceived as a barrier to sport participation. The authors suggest that future interventions aiming to increase sport participation among children may not need to emphasise mediating overweight, but instead concentrate on the perception of fun and inclusion. Transport, cost, and access to quality sports programs remain as barriers to participation.
Parental perceptions of barriers to children’s participation in organised sport in Australia, Hardy L, Bridget Kelly, Kathy Chapman, et. al., Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, Volume 46(4), pp.197-203, (April 2010). A survey of over 400 parents of 5-17 year-old children in New South Wales was used to determine what factors were barriers to their child’s participation in sport. The greatest barrier was the perception (or reality) that parents did not have the time to commit their support to their child’s participation. The financial cost of participation was also reported to be a significant barrier, particularly among lower income families.

Drivers of Participation, Sport Australia, (accessed 24 March 2022). A toolkit to support organisations to design and deliver participation outcomes, to get more Australians moving more often. The toolkit covers drivers and barriers of participation, trends that impact sport participation, and planning methodology.

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Competence (physical literacy)

A number of studies have concluded that feeling competent is extremely important to maintaining sports participation. Participants who feel confident in their abilities, and/or feel that they are learning and advancing their skills, and parents who feel their child is advancing in physical and social skills, are more likely to continue their participation in organised sports.

By learning the fundamentals of movement and developing a positive attitude to physical activity and sport, individuals acquire the skills, experience, and attitudes that allow them to take part in sports, as well as influencing their level of physical activity throughout their lives.

Physical literacy increases the likelihood of sports participation and long-term physical activity. Research has shown that the childhood years are a critical period for motor development and the opportunity to become ‘physically literate’. Research also suggests that girls are less likely to feel competent in their physical literacy, particularly as they get older, which likely contributes to lower levels of life-long sport participation.

The 2016 and 2018 Australian Active Health Kids report cards gave Australian children a 'D+' grade for movement skills and a 'D-' for overall physical activity. To align with the Global Matrix (which does not grade Movement Skills) this indicator was not included in the 2022 Report Card, although the physical activity score remained the same.

More information on physical literacy and the Australian Physical Literacy Framework is available from the Australian Sports Commission's Physical Literacy website.

Resources and reading

Position Statement for Children Participating in Athletics, Athletics Australia, (October 2018). The Position Statement outlines Athletics Australia’s position in relation to participation of children in athletics in Australia. As a foundation sport, athletics is uniquely positioned to develop fundamental movement skills and make a vital contribution to the development of physical literacy in all children.

Physical Literacy, Kid Do/University of WA, (accessed 21 April 2022). The fundamental movement skills you learn as a young child can have a significant impact on the rest of your life, through school and into adulthood. Here are 3 typical stories that highlight how physical literacy in early childhood can affect the rest of your life.
DCU Research News: Perceived Competence a Key Factor in Children's Participation in Physical Activity, MENAFN, (30 March 2020). New research findings from Dublin City University has found that among children aged 8-12, their perception of their abilities to carry out fundamental movement skills (running, hopping, skipping, jumping) plays a key role in their decision to take part in physical activity.
Want an Olympic legacy? Get primary school children trying out a range of different sports, James Rudd and Colum Cronin, Senior lecturers, Liverpool John Moores University, The Conversation, (5 September 2016). A BBC campaign is encouraging British school children to “Get Inspired” by Team GB’s success and emulate their sporting heroes. However laudable this is, it comes amid a general decline in children’s basic skills at running, jumping, throwing, catching and kicking. Worrying findings across the world show that the movement skills of today’s children are less well developed than previous generations. A recent study in the UK also found children’s movement skills to be poor.

Reboot! Reimagining physically active lives: 2022 Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Young People, Active Healthy Kids Australia, (2022). Since the inception of the Australian Physical Activity Report Card in 2014, our national and state surveillance data has consistently shown overall physical activity levels score a D-. This means that fewer than one third of our children are meeting the national guidelines for the recommended levels of daily physical activity needed for optimal health and wellbeing. The theme of this year’s Report Card, ‘REBOOT! Reimagining physically active lives’, highlights the opportunity that the global COVID-19 pandemic has brought, as a catalyst to reassess and reboot ideas and possibilities around children’s physical activity and how to create more physically active lifestyles for all. While restrictions brought about by the pandemic generally resulted in children being less physically active than before, there have also been changes in how children are physically active. It is these changes and innovations that hold promise for children’s physical activity moving forward. In particular, changes that should be retained and built upon include: the embracing of leisure activities such as walking and cycling, including new infrastructure; a focus on being active in nature and neighbourhood green spaces; and innovations in the use of technology to support physical activity in the home. We now have a unique opportunity to capture these positive changes and integrate them with what we know works from before.
Active Lives: Children and Young People Survey - Attitudes towards sport and physical activity, Sport England , (March 2019). This analysis identified insights into the attitudes of children and young people towards sport and physical activity.
- Physically literate children do twice as much activity. The more of the five elements of physical literacy —enjoyment, confidence, competence, understanding, and knowledge—children have, the more active they are.
- Enjoyment is the biggest driver of activity levels. Despite the majority of children (68%) understanding that sport and activity is good for them, understanding had the least impact on activity levels.
- Children who have all five elements of physically literacy report higher levels of happiness, are more trusting of other children, and report higher levels of resilience (continuing to try if you find something difficult).
- Physical literacy decreases with age. As children grow older, they report lower levels of enjoyment, confidence, competence, and understanding. Previous research from Sport England shows that activity levels drop when children reach their teenage years.
- There are inequalities between certain groups of children. Girls are less likely to say they enjoy or feel confident about doing sport and physical activity (58% of boys enjoy it, compared to 43% of girls, and 47% of boys feel confident, compared to 31% of girls). Among children aged 5-7, boys are more likely to love playing sport, while girls are more likely to love being active. Children from the least affluent families are less likely to enjoy activity than those from the most affluent families, and previous research shows they are also far less likely to be active. Black children are more physically literate than other ethnic groups—driven by boys, but they're less active than the population as a whole.
- Updated statistics on these measures continue to be reported in annual Active Lives Children and Young People survey reports.
Muscular Fitness: It’s Time for a Jump Start. The 2018 Active Healthy Kids Australia Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Young People, Active Healthy Kids Australia, (2018). Active Healthy Kids Australia (AHKA) is a collaboration of 13 physical activity researchers from nine universities with the primary goal to advocate for ways to increase physical activity and decrease sedentary behaviour among Australian children and young people. The theme of this year’s Report Card highlights the seemingly forgotten component of our national physical activity guidelines — that children should engage in muscle and bone strengthening activities on at least three days per week. Recently highlighted declines in the jumping ability of Australian children and young people indicate that ‘it’s time for a jump start’ for muscular fitness. We need immediate action in order to get our kids moving more everyday — they need to engage in activities that will get them ‘huffing and puffing’ as well as strengthening and developing their muscles and bones to ensure they are healthy heading into adulthood.
Physical Literacy: Do Our Kids Have All the Tools? The 2016 Active Healthy Kids Australia Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Young People, Active Healthy Kids Australia, (2016). The Report Card synthesises the best available Australian evidence in order to assign grades to physical activity indicators, and provides a national snap shot of the current levels of physical activity in Australian children and young people. This Report highlights the concept of Physical Literacy, specifically the ‘tools’ children need to be physically active for life. The results of the 2016 Report Card will contribute to the second ‘Global Matrix’ of grades, this time benchmarking Australia against 37 countries.
Physical Literacy: A global environmental scan, Spengler J and Cohen J, Aspen Institute, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2015). Project Play is an initiative that aims to develop a cross-sector plan for physical literacy (PL) in the United States. The first step in the development of the project was to produce this environmental scan of current practice in nine countries: Australia, Canada, England, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Wales. Key findings from this initial investigation include: (1) each country has developed its own definition of physical literacy, but all definitions include a long-term approach, references to affective outcomes (motivation, confidence, etc.) and physical outcomes (fitness and health); (2) each country uses national sporting bodies and schools to promote physical literacy and deliver physical literacy through physical education, community sports programs and active play; (3) countries having well-established initiatives use an online presence (campaigns, resources, blogs, etc.) to deliver strong effective messages about the value of physical literacy; (4) promotion of physical literacy to policymakers often occurs in the context of preventive health outcomes; (5) many physical literacy initiatives target low-income and underserved populations for government funded programs; (6) effective physical literacy initiatives have grassroots support, and; (7) assessment tools to measure and monitor the outcomes of physical literacy initiatives are relatively new, and longitudinal studies are rare.
Getting Australia Moving: establishing a physically literate and active nation (game plan), Keegan R, Keegan S, Daley S, Ordway C, et.al., Centre of Excellence in Physical Literacy and Active Youth (CEPLAY), University of Canberra, (2013). Physical inactivity costs the Australian economy about $13.8 billion annually in healthcare costs, lost productivity and premature mortality. This report presents the case for increasing physical literacy amongst children in Australia, with a view to promoting physical activity and healthy lifestyles. Physical literacy is a concept capturing: (1) the ability to move effectively; (2) the desire to move; (3) the perceptual abilities that support effective movement; (4) the confidence and assurance to attempt movement challenges; and (5) the subsequent ability to interact effectively with the environment and other people. Children who become physically literate are more likely to achieve sporting prowess, athleticism, cardiovascular fitness or more time spent being active; which are amongst a long list of positive outcomes.
Early-years swimming: adding capital to young Australians, final report, Jorgensen R, Griffith University, (2013). The Early-Years Swimming Research Project has been conducted over four years. It has centred on an examination of the possible benefits that may accrue for under-5s who participate in swimming lessons. Participating in swimming has rewards too for health and fitness, but unlike other physical or intellectual pursuits undertaken by children in the years prior to schooling, formal swimming lessons can commence at a much earlier age. Water familiarisation activities can start soon after birth with baby’s first bath and formal lessons start in many swim centres for babies as young as four months. No other baby-centred leisure activity commences at such a young age. The survey has shown considerable differences between normal developmental milestones and when swimming children are reported to achieve them. The child testing has shown that swimming children are often months or years ahead of their same age peers in the normal populations of the tests that were used. One would anticipate that children who engage in activities that develop their physical skills would perform better on measures of this type so it is unsurprising to report that the children do well in areas that require them to use their bodies for movement (such as hopping, walking, running, or climbing stairs). What is surprising, and of interest to parents, educators, and policy makers, is that the children also score significantly better on measures that related to their visual motor skills (which includes skills such as cutting paper, colouring-in and drawing lines); gross motor stationery skills (e.g. standing on tiptoes, standing on one foot, imitating movement, performing sit-ups); oral expression (being able to speak and explain things, etc.); and achieving in general areas of literacy and numeracy and mathematical reasoning. It was also found that the children scored better on measures of understanding and complying with directions. Swimming children performed at levels of very high significance in relation to normal populations (p>0.001). Many of these skills are needed in formal education contexts so it would appear that swimming children may be better prepared for their transitions to school. This is a considerable advantage that is well beyond the swimming skills and water safety skills advocated by the swim industry.The findings may be a reflection of the socio-economic strata of participant’s families, as middle and upper socio-economic families are more likely to enrol their children in swim lessons. However, further analysis has indicated that differences between a swimming group and a similar population cohort do exist.

Movement competence: Association with physical self-efficacy and physical activity, Cameron Peers, Johann Issartel, Stephen Behan, et.al., Human Movement Science, Volume 70, (April 2020). Movement competence (fundamental movement skills and perceived movement skill competence) acts as a source of information for children's physical self-efficacy, moreover physical self-efficacy mediates the movement competence – PA relationship. Findings highlight the need for interventions to target and improve movement competence as a whole for children.
Should toddlers and preschoolers participate in organized sport? A scoping review of developmental outcomes associated with young children’s sport participation, Meghan Harlow, Lauren Wolman and Jessica Fraser-Thomas, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Volume 13(1), pp.40-64, (2020). Organized sport is offered at increasingly younger ages, with many programs geared towards preschoolers, toddlers, and infants. While sport is promoted as an amendable context for healthy development of school-age children, little is empirically known about potential benefits or risks associated with organized sport participation in early childhood. A scoping review of nine electronic databases identified English-language, peer-reviewed, original research articles which addressed psychological, emotional, social, cognitive, or intellectual developmental outcomes of organized sport involvement of children aged 2–5 years; included studies were appraised for quality. Findings offer preliminary evidence that early sport participation is related to primarily positive outcomes (e.g. enhanced social skills, pro-social behaviours, self-regulation), while negative and inconclusive outcomes were also identified. Results suggest limited existing research has primarily relied on parent or teacher proxy-report or assessment, and reinforces that little is known about toddler and preschooler organized sport participation as a distinct form of physical activity, despite pervasive availability of programming, and positive parental perceptions of early enrolment.
Development of a physical literacy model for older adults – a consensus process by the collaborative working group on physical literacy for older Canadians, Gareth Jones, Liza Stathokostas, Bradley Young, et.al., BMC Geriatrics, Volume 18(13), (January 2018). Older adults are a unique group who have yet to be exposed to PL as a means to promote long-term PA participation. This new PL model uses an ecological approach to integrate PL into the lifestyles of most older adults. Understanding the interactions between components and elements that facilitate PL will ultimately provide a new and effective tool to target PA promotion and adherence for all older Canadians.
Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, Peter Witt, Tek Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach). Interpersonal constraints include parental pressure and loss of feelings of ownership and not having enough time to participate in other age-appropriate activities. Finally, structural constraints include time (for training and travel), injuries, cost, and inadequate facilities.
Setting them up for lifetime activity: Play competence perceptions and physical activity in young children. Lisa Barnett, Nicola Ridgers, Kylie Hesketh, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 20 (9), pp.856-860, (2017). The study purpose was to assess if perceived active play competence is associated with young children’s physical activity. Positive findings in the older sample show school-aged children need exposure to play based activities in order to develop the positive self-perception needed to engage in MVPA every day.
Sport-specific factors predicting player retention in junior cricket, Talpey S, Croucher T, Mustafa A , et.al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 17(3), pp.264-270, (2017). This investigation sought to determine the performance and participation factors that influenced continued participation in junior cricket. Players (under the age of 16 years) at a community-level junior cricket association in Australia were surveyed over a seven-year period. Performance factors that significantly predicted continued participation in junior cricket were the number of innings batted and the number of overs bowled. Other performance factors, such as the number of runs scored or wickets taken also influenced ongoing participation. These results demonstrate that sufficient opportunity for children to participate in the game and expression of skills competence are key factors for retention in cricket.
Association between sports participation, motor competence and weight status: A longitudinal study, Henrique R, Re A, Stodden D, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 19(10), pp.825-829, (October 2016). The aim of this study was to investigate if baseline motor competence, weight status, and sports participation in early childhood predicted sports participation two years later. Results indicated that preschoolers who initially participated in sports had acquired more advanced locomotor skills and were more likely to participate in sports two years later. The authors conclude that development of motor competency is cumulative during early childhood and the effects on sport participation and physical activity may be persistent across childhood. Locomotor skills were the first subset of motor competence associated with sport participation, as it involves independent upright locomotion. The next step in the developmental hierarchy is refinement of object control skills, which are generally associated with the maintenance of posture. Because more complex perceptual-motor adjustments are needed for controlled and precise object manipulation and projection, it is clear that prolonged exposure to motor experiences involving object control skills may be needed to achieve mastery in this area.
Why Are Girls Less Physically Active than Boys? Findings from the LOOK Longitudinal Study, Telford RM, Telford RD, Olive LS, et.al., PLoS ONE, Volume 11(3), (2016). Highlights the impact of differences between boys and girls in relation to attributes that are linked to greater lifetime physical activity (such as cardio-respiratory fitness, eye-hand co-ordination, and perceived competence in physical education/movement) and the need to take these factors into account when designing intervention strategies.
Cross-cultural comparison of motor competence in children from Australia and Belgium, Bardid F, Rudd J, Lenoir M, et.al., Frontiers in Psychology, (July 2015). Due to the many different motor skill instruments in use, children's motor competence across countries is rarely compared. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the motor competence of children from Australia and Belgium. Statistical analysis showed that 21% of Belgian children and 39% Australian children scored ‘below average’. The very low levels reported by Australian children may be the result of cultural differences influencing physical activity, such as the physical education framework in schools and the use of active transport (walking or cycling) to/from school. When compared to normed scores, both samples scored significantly worse than children 40 years ago. The decline in children's motor competence is a global issue, largely influenced by increasing sedentary behaviour and a decline in physical activity.
Operationalizing physical literacy through sport education, Hastie P and Wallhead T, Journal of Sport and Health Science, Volume 4(2), pp.132-138, (June 2015). Physical literacy, as embodied within physical education, has been associated with the disposition of students of all abilities to engage in lifelong physical activity. This paper discusses how the pedagogical features of Sport Education, may be used to operationalise both physical literacy and physical education. The authors conclude that substantial evidence exists to validate the link between physical literacy and physical education. Some researchers also suggest that students who are developing their physical literacy within a school physical education program must also be provided with an external outlet to activate their skills in the form of community sport participation.
Associations between young children's perceived and actual ball skill competence and physical activity, Barnetta L, Ridgersb N and Salmon J, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 18(2), pp.167-171, (March 2015). A total of 102 children (56% boys, 44% girls) aged 4–8 years completed assessments. The results showed that girls had lower perceived and actual object control competence and were less active than boys. Actual object control competence was positively associated with perceived object control competence and this relationship did not differ by sex. However, neither actual nor perceived object control competence were associated with moderate to vigorous physical activity. Young children's perceived ball skill abilities appear to relate to actual competence. In older children, object control skill is associated with physical activity, so targeting young children's object control skills may be an intervention priority.
Do perceptions of competence mediate the relationship between fundamental motor skill proficiency and physical activity levels of children in kindergarten?, Crane J, Naylor P, Cook R, et.al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health , Volume 12(7), pp.954-961, (2015). It is known that perceptions of competence mediate the relationship between motor skill proficiency and physical activity among older children. This study examined kindergarten children’s perceptions of physical competence as a mediator of the relationship between motor skill proficiency as a predictor variable and physical activity levels as the outcome variable. Participants were 116 children, mean age 5 years and 7 months, from ten schools in British Columbia, Canada. This study found that, on average, perceptions of physical competence were generally positive and physical activity levels were quite high. Motor skills levels were in the mid-range, with locomotor skill proficiency scores higher than object control skill scores. Object control predicted perceived physical competence. The bidirectional relationship between object control skills and physical activity suggests that motor skill development is both an outcome of, and a precursor for, physical activity.
Early motor skill competence as a mediator of child and adult physical activity, Loprinzi P, Davis R and Fu Y, Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 2, pp.833-838, (2015). The authors provide an overview of current empirical research related to early motor skill development and its impact on child and adult physical activity. There is consistent evidence showing that adequate motor skill competence, particularly locomotor and gross motor skills, is associated with increased physical activity levels during the preschool, child, and adolescent years. Early motor skill development also influences enjoyment of physical activity and long-term motor skill performance. The physical education setting appears to be a well-suited environment for motor skill development and strategies that target motor skill development across the childhood years are recommended.
Contribution of organized and non-organized activity to children's motor skills and fitness, Hardy L, O’Hara B, Rogers K, et.al., Journal of School Health, Volume 84(11), pp.690-696, (November 2014). This study examined the associations between children's organised physical activity (OPA), non-organised physical activity (NOPA), and two health-related outcomes – fundamental movement skill (FMS) and fitness in a sample of children aged 10-16 years. The authors concluded that both OPA and NOPA are important contributors to children's health-related outcomes. Among the girls, OPA was more strongly associated with both fitness and FMS competency. These findings support the importance of providing children with opportunities to engage in a range of daily physical activities, both organised (school physical education programs and school sport) and non-organised activities (active transport to school, play, and social sport).
Correlates of youth sport attrition: A review and future directions, Balisha S, Rainhama D, Blancharda C, et.al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 15(4), pp.429-439, (July 2014). Given the potential benefits of youth sport, this study sought to identify correlates (i.e. factors) of youth sport attrition and evaluate the strength of evidence for each correlate. One hundred forty-one distinct correlates were examined from published literature between 1982 and 2012. Reasons for attrition were identified as being biological, intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy related. In total, 11 correlates were categorized as having a high quality level of evidence and 10 as having a low quality. High quality correlates included, among others, age, autonomy, perceived competence, relatedness, and task climate.
Changes in physical fitness and sports participation among children with different levels of motor competence: A two-year longitudinal study, Fransen J, Deprez D, Pion J, et.al., Pediatric Exercise Science, Volume 26(1), pp.11-21, (2014). The goal of this study was to investigate differences in physical fitness and sports participation over two years in children between the ages of 6 and 10 years; with relatively high, average and low motor competence. Children with high motor competence scored better on physical fitness tests and participated in sports more often. Since physical fitness levels between groups changed similarly over time, low motor competent children might be at risk of being less physically fit throughout their life. Furthermore, since low motor competent children participate less in sports, they have fewer opportunities of developing motor abilities and physical fitness and this may further prevent them from catching up with their peers having average or high motor competence.
Australian children lack the basic movement skills to be active and healthy, Barnett L, Hardy L, Lubans D, et.al., Health Promotion Journal of Australia , Volume 24(2), pp.82-84, (July 2013). This commentary puts forth the position that primary schools must increase children’s opportunities to learn and develop fundamental movement skills through multiple sources and settings – unstructured active play, quality physical education, school sport and community-based programs.
Benefits of early development of eye-hand coordination: evidence from the LOOK longitudinal study, Telford RD, Cunningham R, Telford RM, et.al., Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 23(5), pp.e263-2269, (2013). This study looked at the longitudinal and cross-sectional relationships between eye-hand coordination (EHC), cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity level, percent body fat and body image, and organised sport participation of boys and girls at 8 years and again at 10 years of age. Analyses showed that boys and girls with better EHC were significantly fitter and a longitudinal relationship showed that girls who improved their EHC over the two years became fitter. There was also evidence that children with better EHC possessed a more positive body image. Even at age 8 years, boys and girls participating in organised sport possessed better EHC than non-participants. These data provide evidence for the premise that early acquisition of this single motor skill promotes the development of a child's fitness, body image, and participation in sport.
Child, family and environmental correlates of children's motor skill proficiency, Barnett L, Hinkley T, Okely A , et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 16(4), pp.332-336, (2013). This study looked at what factors were correlated with motor skill proficiency among 76 Australian preschool children, 34 boys and 42 girls (mean age 4.1 years). The researchers found that age, prior swimming lessons, and access to home exercise/sports equipment were positively associated with motor skill proficiency. These factors explained 20% of the variance in motor skill. In addition, gender, parental involvement in play activity, and the amount of unstructured physical activity that was classified as moderate-to-vigorous in intensity, accounted for 32% of the variance in object control skill.
Thirteen-year trends in child and adolescent fundamental movement skills: 1997–2010, Hardy L, Barnett L, Espinel P, et.al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 45(10), pp.1965-1970, (2013). This study examined changes in the physical competency of New South Wales school children on five common Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS): sprint run, vertical jump, catch, overarm throw, and kick. Serial surveys spanning 13 years were used to collect data. At each survey children's competency was low, rarely above 50 per cent. Between 1997 and 2004 both boys and girls improved in their competency for the five FMS areas, with the exception of the overarm throw in high school girls. These improvements coincided with the distribution of resources to government schools that supported the teaching of FMS and the use of physical education specialists. The observed improvements in FMS competency to 2004 were attributed to changes in school policies and practices. In 2010 overall competency remained low and data suggests that the current delivery of FMS programs requires stronger positioning within the school curriculum. Strategies to improve children's physical activity should consider ensuring children are taught skills and acquire competency so they can enjoy being physically active and engage in a variety of sports.
Why do children take part in, and remain involved in sport? a literature review and discussion of implications for coaches, Bailey R, Cope E and Pearce G, International Journal of Coaching Science, Volume 7(1), pp.55-74, (2013). This review found that children’s participation in sport is mediated by five primary factors: (1) perception of competence; (2) fun and enjoyment; (3) parents; (4) learning new skills; and (5) friends and peers. These findings suggest that, in addition to the generally acknowledged psychological factors, the social-cultural context in which children play influences their motivations to participate.
Differences in physical fitness and gross motor coordination in boys aged 6-12 years specializing in one versus sampling more than one sport, Fransen J, Pion J, Vandendriessche J, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 30(4), pp.379-386, (January 2012). This study investigated the effect of sampling various sports and of spending many or few hours in sports on fitness and gross motor coordination. Subjects were boys (N=735) in three age groups (6–8, 8–10, and 10–12 years), they were profiled using a fitness test battery; a physical activity questionnaire; and tests of motor competency. Analysis of the data suggests an acute positive effect of many hours in sports and a latent positive effect of early sampling on fitness and gross motor coordination. Multiple comparisons revealed that boys aged 10–12 years, who spent many hours in various sports, performed better on gross motor coordination tests than boys specialising in a single sport. These results highlight the importance of spending sufficient hours in sports participation and sampling various sports in the development of fitness and gross motor coordination.
Prevalence and correlates of low Fundamental Movement Skill competency in children, Hardy L, Reinten-Reynolds T, Espinel P, et.al., Pediatrics, Volume 130(2), pp.e390-e398, (August 2012). This study examined the demographic and health-related characteristics of Australian school-aged children assessed as having low competency in fundamental movement skills (FMS). Overall, the prevalence of students with low motor skill competency was high. Girls with low socioeconomic status (SES) were twice as likely to be less competent in locomotor skills compared with high SES peers. Among boys, there was a strong association between low competency in FMS and the likelihood of being from non–English-speaking cultural backgrounds. There was a clear and consistent association between low competency in FMS and inadequate cardiorespiratory fitness. It was concluded that primary school-based interventions focusing on skill acquisition, as well as fitness education, could significantly improve health-related fitness and physical activity levels in older children.

Physical Literacy, Sport Australia, (accessed 21 April 2022). Physical literacy involves holistic lifelong learning through movement and physical activity. It delivers physical, psychological, social and cognitive health and wellbeing benefits. The Sport Australia Position Statement on Physical Literacy outlines our commitment to creating a healthier generation of more active Australians. Sport Australia has identified the physical, psychological, social and cognitive skills people can work on to develop their physical literacy. This holistic learning enables people to draw on these integrated skills to lead healthy and fulfilling lives through movement and physical activity.
KID DO, University of Western Australia/Healthway, (accessed 21 April 2022). Improving the fundamental movement skills of kids aged 3-8 KIDDO offers physical literacy programs and resources for educators, coaches and parents.
LOOK Study (Lifestyle of Our Kids). The LOOK study is a collaborative, multidisciplinary longitudinal study beginning in childhood and finishing in old age. Its main objective is to determine how physical activity and early physical education impact upon quality of life for Australians, not just in childhood and adolescence but right through a lifetime. The LOOK participants were initially 8 years of age when the study commenced in 2005. Participants were measured again at age 10 and 12 years. Over this period of four years in primary school data was collected to measure physical activity, fitness, body composition and nutritional intake; and to determine relationships of these factors with their bone health, risk of cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes, their balance and coordination, their stress levels and body image, and even their academic progress. In 2013 the cohort was reassessed at the age of 15 years. The next measurement phase is the Early Adult Phase planned to start in late 2022 to 2023 when the cohort is 25 years of age. A number of publications have presented the findings from the LOOK Study (thus far).
Junior Athletics Guidelines, Athletics Australia, (2019). These resources have been produced to assist coaches, parents, athletes, teachers, and administrators in providing appropriate athletics experiences for children across a range of settings and ages. The early stages focus on the development of physical literacy through play and sampling a variety of sports and activities and progress through to the specialisation and investment phases. The FIT Model has a strong focus on the avoidance of early specialisation, particularly with athletics being a late maturation sport. The FIT Model has been produced to assist with the understanding and decision making of parents, coaches, administrators and athletes in relation to selecting developmentally appropriate activities for children.
Move & Learn: Training manual for non-formal Education through Sport and physical activities with young people, Andonova D, Acs M and Holmes D, International Sport and Culture Association (2013). The European Union highly values the positive role that sport can play in the field of education. Sport is a key tool to promote social and personal values such as team spirit, discipline, perseverance and fair play; and sport can also boost knowledge, motivation and skills. This manual aims to provide an approach through which learning projects can be complemented with sport and physical activities and sport for all communities can be complemented with a more conscious learning for life skills dimension. The manual is written for sport trainers who work with young people and would be open to integrating a stronger non-formal education approach in their sport activities. It is also for youth workers and trainers who are ready to integrate sport and physical activities into their community projects and educational activities.

Physical Literacy Practitioners Workshop, Australian Sports Commission, Parkroyal, Melbourne, (18 July 2017).
‘Can’t Run, Can’t Throw’ – Findings of NSW children's lack of fundamental movement skills, Dr Louise Hardy, Senior Research Fellow, Physical Activity, Nutrition and Obesity Research Group (PANORG), University of Sydney. Smart Talk seminar series, Australian Institute of Sport, (27 August 2012)

How to get kids moving: expand, extend, and enhance physical activity opportunities, BioMed Central, YouTube , (10 February 2017). This video summarises research published in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity on the theory of expanded, extended and enhanced opportunities for youth physical activity promotion.

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Cultural

There has been considerable research linking general socio-economic factors—such as household income, attained education of parents, family size, and language spoken within the home environment—to participation in organised sports activities. The influence of parental attitudes and early school opportunities to engage in quality physical education programs has also been shown to increase the likelihood that children will engage in sports.

Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and persons from cultural and linguistically diverse (CaLD) backgrounds, the participation rate in organised sports in Australia, for both adults and children is generally lower than in the wider population. The lower rate may be attributed to socio-economic factors as well as disadvantage created by location and access to programs and facilities. More information on participation rates and factors for First Nations communities are provided in the Australia's First Nations Peoples and Sport topic.

Within CaLD groups the participation rate appears to vary with the concentration of that ethnic group within the community. In 2012 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) figures showed that people born in Australia are more likely to participate in sport and physical recreation than those born in non-English speaking countries, with women from non-English speaking backgrounds having the lowest levels of participation.

The participation rate of children between 5-14 years from families where both parents were born in Australia was 69% (75.7% for males and 62.6% for females), compared to 41.5% for both parents born in other countries (50% for males and 32.4 percent for females). [Note: the ABS stopped collecting sport participation statistics in 2014]

Although not specific to country of birth the AusPlay survey similarly shows that both adults and children from households who speak a language other than English at home are less likely to participate in sport or physical activity than those who spoke only English. Results from the most recent survey [October 2021] show that:

Adults - at least once per week (81.0% only English; 75.7% other language); At least 3 times per week (63.6% English; 56.8% other language).

Children - at least once per year (73.3% only English spoken at home; 60.0% language other than English spoken at home).

Resources and reading

No results were found

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Geographic

Community size and infrastructure (which may also influence organisational capacity) can impact upon sport participation.

Prevailing social and cultural characteristics of a community can have a great influence on which sports are popular. Some research suggests that 'mid-size' communities create a better environment for sport participation than either very small or large communities. However, the research is ongoing because of the multiple social factors involved and their interaction.

AusPlay survey data from January - December 2021 shows that adult sport and physical recreation participation tends to be highest in major cities and declines for more remote areas. The percentage of people aged 15 and over who participated in sport/physical activity at least once per week was:

82.1% for major cities
78.8% for inner regional
72.4% for outer regional
68.4% for remote or very remote

For children under 15 years of age, the pattern appears to be slightly different. Organised sport participation outside of school hours at least once per year is highest in remote or very remote areas, followed by major cities, inner regional and outer regional areas.

73.5% for major cities
71.1% for inner regional
67.3% for outer regional
80.8% for remote or very remote

More information is available in the Sport in Rural and Regional Australia topic.

Resources and reading

Sink or Swim? A survival analysis of sport dropout in Australian youth swimmers, Kylie Moulds, Shaun Abbott, Johan Pion, et.al., Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 30(11), pp.2222-2233, (2020). In a large representative sample of swimmers, survival analyses identified age‐group, competition level, and city proximity were associated with increased swimming dropout rates.
Physical activity of rurally residing children with a disability: A survey of parents and carers, Luke Wakely, Jessica Langham, Catherine Johnston, Disability and Health Journal, Volume 11(1), pp.31-35, (2018). The children in this study were from rural areas and face similar barriers to children in metropolitan areas. However, they are also confronted with the same barriers children without a disability in rural areas face, participating in physical activity. This may have detrimental effects on their health and development.
VicHealth Research Practice Fellowship – Physical Activity Final report, Eime, Rochelle, Sport and Recreation Spatial, (March 2016). This research report examined participation trends for seven sports - Australian football, tennis, netball, basketball, cricket, hockey and bowls – played in Victoria. Findings related to rural and regional sports included: males (10-14 years) from non-metropolitan areas had the highest participation rate ; there was an increase in participation rate from 2010 to 2012 for non-metropolitan compared to metropolitan people ; non-metropolitan participation compared to metropolitan areas was higher during adolescence (14–18 years) and throughout mature adulthood (30+ years) ; rates of regular physical activity participation decreased as remoteness increased ; and the rate of participation for Australian football, cricket, netball, hockey, bowls and fishing was higher as geographical remoteness increased.
Community size and sport participation across 22 countries, Balish S, Rainham D and Blanchard C, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, Volume 25(6), pp.e576-e581, (2015). Data from 22 countries (including Australia) was analysed to determine the association between community size and the rate of individual and team sport participation and physical activity participation. The analysis provides evidence to support the hypothesis that communities that have between 10,000 and 100,000 residents provide a context in which individuals are more likely to participant in sport, especially team sport. In addition, this study found that the size of communities was unrelated to physical activity participation. Although the individual participation rates vary across countries, the relationship stays the same. More research into community size and sport participation in more diverse contexts is required to explain this relationship. The authors point out that this study has limitations; it employed only two relatively crude (i.e., dichotomous) measures of community size (10,000 to 100,000 and less than 10,000), leaving open the possibility that more specific classifications could better explain the associations.
Participation in physical activity and sport: Associations with socio-economic status and geographical location, Eime R, Harvey J, Charity M, et.al., Sport and Recreation Spatial report, (2014). This research looked at the relationship between participation rates, frequency of participation, and participation specific contexts in relation to socio-economic status and remoteness of location. There were 95 different types of physical activity identified; the majority of these activities showed a statistically significant relationship between participation and socio-economic status. There were also some significant relationships among some activities between participation and remoteness.
Understanding the relationships between the physical environment and physical activity in older adults: a systematic review of qualitative studies, Moran M, Van Cauwenberg J, Hercky-Linnewiel R, et.al., International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 11, article 79, (2014). While physical activity (PA) provides many physical, social, and mental health benefits for older adults, they are the least physically active age group. This study provides a systematic review of qualitative studies exploring the potential impact of the physical environment to influence PA behaviours in older adults. Environmental factors that potentially influence older adults’ PA behaviours were categorised into five themes: (1) pedestrian infrastructure; (2) safety; (3) access to amenities; (4) aesthetics; and (5) environmental conditions. Environmental factors especially relevant to older adults that tended to emerge more frequently in studies were access to facilities and green open spaces with rest areas.
Physical activity and screen time behaviour in metropolitan, regional and rural adolescents: A -sectional study of Australians aged 9–16 years, James Dollman, Carol Maher, Tim S. Olds, et.al., Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 15(1), pp.32-37, (2012). While there is consistent evidence that rural adults in Australia are less active than their urban counterparts, studies relating geographical remoteness to activity patterns in Australian adolescents have yielded inconsistent results. The aim of this study was to describe objectively and subjectively measured patterns of physical activity and sedentary behaviours across remoteness categories in a representative sample of 9–16 year old Australians. Adolescents living in major cities self-reported 11–29 min less moderate to vigorous physical activity each day than their counterparts living in geographically more remote areas, and took 150–850 fewer steps each day. While there were no differences in time spent in sport or active transport, differences in free play participation were significant. Males in major cities also reported higher levels of screen time. Differences were somewhat more marked among males than among females. Conclusions: Activity levels among Australian adolescents show contrasting patterns of geographical differences to those found in Australian adults. Higher levels of free play among rural Australian adolescents may be due to more available space and less fear of traffic and stranger risks.
Physical activity in rural Australia, fact sheet, National Rural Health Alliance, (2011). Research studies conducted in rural Australia have identified various barriers and challenges faced by rural residents in undertaking physical activity. They include lack of time, confidence and motivation to engage in physical activity, as well as limited transport to sporting facilities and events. Certain sports facilities, such as heated swimming pools and commercial gymnasiums, are less readily available in rural than metropolitan areas. Other barriers are cultural. They include the belief that ‘rural work’ provides sufficient physical activity so that it is not necessary to pursue physical activity during leisure hours. Other barriers to physical activity are related to the lower socio-economic status of rural residents, making them less able to afford sporting equipment and fees. Rural residents also have less access to healthcare professionals who can potentially provide support and encouragement for participation in physical activity.

FitNSW 2016: Supporting local communities to move more, NSW Parliament House, Macquarie Street Sydney, (9 March 2016)
Physical Activity, Sport and Walking, Stefan Grun, Manager Physical Activity, Sport and Healthy Eating Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, VicHealth, Australian Sport Technologies Network Annual Conference, (21 October 2014)

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Socio-economic

Individuals experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage – whether a low education level, low income, low-status occupation, or living in a socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhood – are often less likely than more advantaged segments of the population to engage in sport or physical activity. This may be because of cost, including time required and/or financial resources to pay for activities, or the equipment required to participate (e.g. shoes, uniforms, fees), and less access to suitable facilities or programs in more disadvantaged neighbourhoods.

AusPlay survey results indicate that individuals from households with annual income of less than AU$40,000 have the lowest participation levels for both adults and children. Participation rates generally continue to rise in line with income. [note: As is common in population surveys, a large proportion of respondents refused to provide or did not know their household income.]

Additionally, adults who are employed (whether full, part-time, or casual) are more likely to be physically active than those who are unemployed or engaged in home duties. Individuals who have completed high school or tertiary education are more likely to be physically active than people who did not complete the highest level of school.

Resources and reading

Sport and Recreation Sector Event reveals Auckland’s socio-economic gap driving participation down, Aktive, (9 December 2019). Hosted by Aktive, in association with strategic partners Sport New Zealand and Auckland Council, more than 120 leaders from 90 different sport, recreation, health and community organisations attended the event, which featured the latest Active Citizens Worldwide research from leading global management consultancy Portas Consulting. This research shows that individuals from higher socio-economic backgrounds are more active through sport and active recreation, with Auckland however having the highest socio-economic gap of all Active Citizens Worldwide participating cities.
Our work to help people from deprived areas to get physically active, Sport England, (31 October 2019). Earlier this month we updated you on how the 35 projects to receive funding from our Tackling Inactivity and Economic Disadvantage have been getting on. In their first year they have engaged almost 5,000 people from lower socio-economic groups. Here we’re going to take a closer look at the impact some of these projects, as well as those working with similar groups of people but not receiving TIED funding, are having.
Active Citizens Worldwide: annual report 2019, Active Citizens Worldwide, (2019). Now in the second year ACW works to provide compelling evidence from participating cities (Auckland, London, Singapore, Stockholm) to shed light on the value of sport and physical activity (economic, health, social) and the complex systemic interplay between socio-economics, demographics, policy, and sport/physical activity participation. Some highlights of the report include: Physically active individuals are: 6% happier; 28% more trusting of community: have 6% higher life satisfaction; and, 14% less psychologically distressed. Sport can also lead to more time spent with others. For every hour spend doing sport, 48 minutes are spent with other people; for non-sport exercise 1 hour=23 minutes spent with others. The report also highlights that well-off individuals are up to 1.7 times more likely to be active than those less well-off and the participation gap between men and women remains pronounced in all participating cities.

Sports and Health in America, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, (2015). In the United States of America there is a sharp decline in sports participation among adults as they age. This report looks at age, gender and income in relation to adult sport participation.
- Lower-income adults are less than half as likely to play sports as higher-income adults. Sports participation among adults varies by income, where only 15% of lower-income adults play sports (those with household incomes less than $25,000/year), while 37% of higher-income adults play sports (those with household incomes of at least $75,000/year).
- There is also an education gap in sports participation, as adults with less education (graduated high school or less) are much less likely to say they play sports (15%) compared to adults with some college (29%) or college graduates (35%).
- Parents who are less well-off are twice as likely to report problems with the costs of their child’s sports compared to parents who are more well-off. When parents whose child plays sports were asked about problems that make it difficult for their child to continue participating, about one in three parents (32%) who are less well-off (household incomes less than $50,000/year) say that sports cost too much, while just one in six parents (16%) who are more well-off (household incomes $50,000/year or more) say that sports cost too much.
- Adults who exercise are more likely to have higher incomes, more education, and tend to be younger than adults who do not exercise. Lower-income adults are less likely to exercise regularly than higher-income adults: 40% of lower-income adults (those with household incomes less than $25,000/year) say they exercise on a regular basis, while 64% of higherincome adults (those with household incomes of at least $75,000/year) say they exercise on a regular basis.

Fair play? Participation equity in organised sport and physical activity among children and adolescents in high income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Katherine Owen, Tracy Nau, Lindsey Reece, et.al., International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 19, article 27, (March 2022). From the 104 eligible studies, we meta-analysed 163 effect sizes. Overall, children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were more likely to participate in sport and participated for a longer duration. The socioeconomic disparity in the duration of sport participation was greater in children compared with adolescents. Overall, children and adolescents living in higher socioeconomic status households were more likely to meet physical activity guidelines and participated for a longer duration. The socioeconomic disparity in the duration of total physical activity between low and high socioeconomic status households was greater in children compared with adolescents. There was no significant disparity in leisure time physical activity. These findings highlight the need importance of targeting sport programs according to socio-economic gradients, to reduce inequities in access and opportunity to organised sport.
Overcoming disparities in organized physical activity: findings from Australian community strategies, Smith B, Thomas M and Batras D, Health Promotion International, Volume 31(3), pp.572-581, (September 2016). This article examines the barriers to participation in sport and strategies used to overcome these barriers among disadvantaged groups. Sporting organisations received community funding from VicHealth’s Participation in Community Sport and Recreation Program (PICSAR) to adopt strategies allowing them to include more people from Indigenous, low socioeconomic and culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds, as well as persons with disabilities into their programs. Disadvantaged groups typically have lower levels of physical activity and poorer health outcomes compared to the overall population. Several barriers to participation were identified – high costs, lack of transport to activities, cultural differences, unwelcoming sporting environments at clubs, and lack of suitable facilities for people with disabilities. A number of successful strategies were put in place to overcome these barriers; including: employing staff from the priority groups; building communication and partnerships over time with community organisations; specific training for staff and volunteers; and modifying traditional activities to better suit participants. Various strategies were also put in place to reduce cost and provide transport. Although cost and transport strategies demonstrated some success, they were not sustainable. Overall, organisations found it took longer than initially expected to successfully engage target populations, but that this was a necessary and valuable process.
Traversing myths and mountains: addressing socioeconomic inequities in the promotion of nutrition and physical activity behaviours, Ball K, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 12, article 142, (November 2015). Socioeconomic inequities are linked to both decreased participation in health promoting physical activity and greater sedentary behaviours. The impacts of socioeconomic disadvantage are evident across multiple populations and studies. This is a concern because socioeconomic inequities also impact upon the rate of obesity and many health outcomes. Yet there remains a dearth of evidence of the most effective means of addressing these inequities. People who experience disadvantage face multiple challenges to maintaining healthy behaviours, including participation in organised and social sport and health promoting physical activity. This paper addresses some on the challenges facing behavioural scientists.
Childhood socioeconomic position and adult leisure-time physical activity: a systematic review, Elharkeem A, Cooper R, Bann D, et.al., International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 12, article 92, (July 2015). Evidence suggests that childhood socioeconomic circumstances can impact on adult long-term physical activity (LTPA). This review tested the hypothesis that a lower childhood socioeconomic position (SEP) is associated with less frequent LTPA during adulthood. A systematic review of literature was conducted from English language based publications; 45 papers from 36 studies were included in the review, most were of European origin. This review found evidence of an association between less advantaged childhood SEP and less frequent LTPA during adulthood. Future research should focus on how associations vary by gender and country.
Children’s participation in organized sport and physical activities and active free play: Exploring the impact of time, gender and neighbourhood household income using longitudinal data, Cairney J, Joshi D, Kwan M, et.al., Sociology of Sport Journal, Volume 32(3), pp.266-283, (January 2015). This study examines the associations among socioeconomic status (SES), aging, gender and sport and physical activity participation from late childhood (age 9 years) into adolescence (13 years). Subjects were 1158 boys (50.8% of the sample) and 1120 girls (49.2%) grade 4 students from Southern Ontario, Canada, schools. This study found that household income was a significant predictor of participation in organised sport/activity; the lower the household income the less participation. The SES impact on participation in organised sport was consistent throughout the age range (i.e. 9 to 13 years) for both boys and girls. In addition, SES had an impact upon active free play by girls, but not for the boys in this study; high SES girls participated in more active play while lower SES girls spent less time in active play. This relationship was not seen among the boys’ active play. The authors speculate that SES and gender factors may interact: adolescent girls from low SES families may be involved in more domestic activities – leaving less time for discretionary physical activity, and; environmental factors and safety concerns may impact more on girls than boys.
Participation in physical activity and sport: Associations with socio-economic status and geographical location, Eime R, Harvey J, Charity M, Thompson H and Payne W, Sport and Recreation Spatial report (2014). This research looked at the relationship between participation rates, frequency of participation, and participation specific contexts in relation to socio-economic status and remoteness of location. There were 95 different types of physical activity identified; the majority of these activities showed a statistically significant relationship between participation and socio-economic status. There were also some significant relationships among some activities between participation and remoteness.

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Role models

A role model is a person whose behaviour, example, or success is or can be emulated by others, especially by younger people [Dictionary.com].

A common phrase is 'you can't be what you can't see'. The value of role models and role model programs is often seen as their ability to encourage preferred behaviours as well as participation, leadership and inclusion of people from diverse groups and populations.

Role model programs in sport and physical activity are often targeted towards children and groups with lower engagement, including: females, culturally and linguistically diverse (CaLD), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, or persons with disability. Programs aim to increase physical activity participation and address other, broader community objectives (such as health, community development, crime, domestic violence reduction, etc.).

Elite and/or high profile athletes are often identified as role models, and both positive and negative behaviours come under intense scrutiny. However, despite this common focus on elite athletes as role models, research suggests that people in our direct circle of family and relationships—including teachers and coaches—can have more positive and long-term impacts.

Parents in particular are generally the strongest role models for their children’s participation in organised sport. When parents are active, their children are much more likely to be active.

More information can also be found in the Engaging Parents in Sport and Role Models and Sport topics.

Resources and reading

Australian kids need active, sporty parents, Factsheet, Australian Sports Commission, AusPlay Survey, (2017).
Paralympian role models: media hype, political rhetoric or the real deal? Louise McCuaig, Senior Lecturer Health and Physical Education in Schools, The University of Queensland, The Conversation, (September 2016). Provides an overview of how the success of role models is often dependent on how 'relevant' they are to those observing them and how 'attainable' their achievements appear and provides anecdote to demonstrate how a Paralympic athlete has been so to a young boy.
Rio Paralympics 2016: Athletes find role-model status a tricky balance. Marc Lancaster, Sporting News, (September 2016). Short article which includes several Rio Paralympic athletes discussing the balance between being a role model and just themselves.
Why do girls need athletic role models? SIRC Blog, (10 June 2015). When role models are mentioned in sport, the first thing that comes to mind are high profile celebrities. While positive role models can be found in amateur and professional sports, it's the people they see every day that make the biggest difference.
Sports star endorsement works a treat on junk food packaging. Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, (28 May 2013). A study undertaken by the Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer (CBRC) at Cancer Council Victoria surveyed 1,300 children around 11 years of age and found that young boys were most influenced by celebrity endorsements from male athletes. The likelihood of boys choosing an unhealthy food was 65 per cent higher when it featured a sports celebrity endorsement.

The AusPlay Survey (AusPlay) is a large scale, rolling national population tracking survey funded and led by Sport Australia that tracks Australian sport and physical activity participation behaviours to help inform investment, policy and sport delivery. Results are updated every six months.
Case Study: Measuring the impact of the FA player appearances programme 2015-2016, Women in Sport, (2017). This report looks at the impact of elite sport stars on girls. The Football Association (FA) runs an established ambassador programme, enabling female football players to share their stories and inspire at a local level, with female players visiting schools and community groups for a number of years. Key findings reported are that player appearances provide a really positive experience for girls in school and community settings. Additionally, the four key impacts reported were: Re-enthusing and validating girls’ participation in football; Actively and meaningfully getting across positive life lessons; Inspiring girls to believe they can achieve in football; Driving interest in the women’s elite game.
The impact of coaching on participants, Hopkinson M, Sports Coach UK, (2014). This report presents the findings from the first year of a four-year study of the impact of coaching (and coaches) upon sports participation. The current results provide evidence to support the belief that quality coaching can help bring people into sport, enhance their enjoyment, and increase how often they play and the likelihood of them staying involved. Key results from the survey identify how important quality coaching is. The report suggests that both adults and young people will have more positive playing experiences the higher the quality of their coach. The survey aimed to gather views from both people who are coached in their chosen sport, and those who play but do not receive coaching.

She Needs to See it to be it: The Importance of Same-Gender Athletic Role Models. Midgley C, DeBues-Stafford G, Lockwood P, Thai S, Sex Roles. Volume 85, pp.142-160, (January 2021). The importance of gender-matched athletic role models for women was examined in four studies. Although both women and men may benefit most from exposure to high profile athletes in their own sport, women may have fewer motivating role models available to them. When asked to nominate examples of athletes, women were less likely than men to list same-gender examples and athletes from their own sport; even high-performing female athletes were less likely to nominate a same-gender role model than their male peers.
Ambassadors of the game: do famous athletes have special obligations to act virtuously? Yorke, Christopher C., Archer, Alfred. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport; Volume 47(2), pp.301-317, (July 2020). Do famous athletes have special obligations to act virtuously? A number of philosophers have investigated this question by examining whether famous athletes are subject to special role model obligations. In this paper, we will take a different approach and give a positive response to this question by arguing for the position that sport and gaming celebrities are ‘ambassadors of the game’: moral agents whose vocations as rule-followers have unique implications for their non-lusory lives. According to this idea, the actions of a game’s players and other stakeholders – especially the actions of its stars – directly affect the value of the game itself, a fact which generates additional moral reasons to behave in a virtuous manner.
Determinants of public perception of elite sport. Hallmann K, Rossi L, Breuer C, Ilgner M. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(3), p.439-453, (July 2020). Elite sports are associated with values such as fair competition, striving to become better and challenging oneself. These are considered as social benefits. However, integrity issues relating to misuse of doping or corruption challenge this. This paper examines the determinants of public perception of elite sport by means of a survey. Logistic regression modelling assesses the effects of trust, athletes as role models, perceived costs and benefits on public perception of elite sports. The results reveal that perceived benefits have a positive effect on all public perception measures whereas perceived costs, trust in key actors of the elite sport system and viewing athletes as role models have only an effect on selected perception measures.
The continued importance of family sport culture for sport participation during the teenage years, Åse Strandbu, Anders Bakken and Kari Stefansen, Sport, Education and Society, Volume 25(8), pp.932-945, (2020). Growing up in a family with an affinity for sports increases the likelihood of participating in club-organised sports. Few studies to date have addressed whether the importance of family sport culture is stable or changes during the teenage years. This article examines the association between family sport culture and participation in club-organised sports during teenage years and whether it differs between boys and girls.
“She is where I’d want to be in my career”: Youth athletes’ role models and their implications for career and identity construction, Noora J. Ronkainen, Tatiana V. Ryba, Harri Selänne, Psychology of Sport and Exercise , Volume 45, (November 2019). Finnish youth athletes are inspired by athlete role models whose lives are not completely constituted by performance narratives of elite sport. From an applied perspective, role models could be incorporated into career counselling with athletes to support identity development and exploration of future selves.
Intergenerational transfer of a sports-related lifestyle within the family, Hayoz C, Klostermann C, Schmid J, et.al., International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Volume 54(2), pp.182-198. (March 2019). In this article, the authors discuss the importance of a sports-related lifestyle within the family, parents’ education, and parents’ sports participation background in their children’s participation choices during adolescence and young adulthood (ages 15 to 30 years).
‘It’s alpha omega for succeeding and thriving’: parents, children and sporting cultivation in Norway, Patrick Foss Johansen, Ken Green, Sport, Education and Society, Volume 24(4), pp.427-440, (2019). It was evident that sport becomes taken for granted and internalised very early on in Norwegian children's lives. Less expected was the recognition that children's nascent sporting interests were often generated by sports clubs via early years schooling and, therefore, that parents played only one (albeit very important) part in the formation of their youngsters’ early sporting habits. Thus, parents, sports clubs and early years schooling appeared to form something akin to a ‘sporting trinity’ in youngsters’ nascent sporting careers. These findings may have implications for policy-makers looking towards Norway for a ‘recipe’ for sports participation.
The inspirational effect of sporting achievements and potential role models in football: a gender-specific analysis, Wicker, P., Frick, B. Managing Sport and Leisure, Volume 21(5), pp.265-282, (December 2016). This study examines the trickle-down effect of potential role models and sporting achievements, respectively. Specifically, it examined the inspirational effect of same-sex and opposite-sex role models on male and female participation in German amateur football. Longitudinal data on German football club memberships and amateur teams were collected for 21 regional football associations over a 15-year-period. The results found that sporting success does not automatically lead to the development of positive role models and inspirational effects.
Elite footballers as role models: promoting young women’s football participation, Dunn, C. Soccer and Society, Volume 17(6), pp.843-856, (2016). Reports the experiences and thoughts of elite female footballers in Great Britain in relation to role models. In particular, it discusses their views on how to encourage young women’s football participation from elite down to grass-roots levels.
Role models of Australian female adolescents: A longitudinal study to inform programmes designed to increase physical activity and sport participation, Young, J., Caroline M Symons, Michelle D Pain, et.al., European Physical Education Review, Volume 21(4), pp.451-466, (November 2015). This study examined role models of adolescent girls and their influence on physical activity by surveying 732 girls in Years 7 and 11 from metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions of Victoria, Australia. Survey questions included whether they had a role model and if they did, the gender, age, type and sporting background of that individual. Survey found the majority of participants nominated a family member, peer or celebrity sportsperson as their role model who was female, played sport and was less than 50 years of age. Non-metropolitan-based adolescent girls, and Year 11 adolescent girls, were more likely to select a role model who they knew played sport than metropolitan-based adolescent girls and Year 7 girls respectively. This study highlighted that family members, peers and sports people should be included as role models in programmes designed to increase physical activity.
The value of female sporting role models, Meiera, M. Sport in Society, Volume 18(8), pp.968-982, (March 2015). This article examines the evidence in relation to the value and functions of female sporting role models. Areas discussed included: participation, leadership, advocacy, gender stereotypes, inspiration, ethics, safeguarding and prevention, media and business and giving back to sport. The author argues that rather than just increasing female SRMs in numbers, attention should be dedicated to the selection variety that encompasses the functions of role models.
Student responses to physically literate adult role models, G. Conlin, Science and Sports, Volume 29, Supplement, p.S17, (October 2014). The objective of this study was to identify who adolescents recognize as a physically active adult role model that might provide the motivation and added confidence needed to become physically literate themselves. Parents, family members, friends, coaches and physical education teachers were identified as active role models. There were fewer instances of coaches and physical education teachers as active role models than the others during all three phases. There were more instances of physical education teachers as an active role model after the active phase than the spectator phase or at baseline.
Role models in sports – Can success in professional sports increase the demand for amateur sport participation? Muttera, F., Pawlowskib, T, Sport Management Review, Volume 17(3), pp.324-336, (August 2014). This paper examines whether the success of professional athletes can spill over on the demand for amateur sport participation. It reviews the empirical evidence of sporting role models and their motivational effect on sport participation. The authors conclude that the effect of professional sports on sport participation is not conclusive.
Professional Athletes and their Duty to be Role Models, Lynch, S., Adair, D., Jonson, P., 'Achieving Ethical Excellence' in Ethical Issues in Organizations, pp.75-90, (2014). The chapter considers understandings of sport, play and athleticism from an ethical perspective and examines their relationship to professionalism to determine the extent to which ethical imperatives can logically be upheld or undermined within the professional context. The chapter calls for recognition of the complexity of ethical decision-making in the context of professional sport and recommends that the training of professional athletes should prepare them to deal with this complexity.
The contractual and ethical duty for a professional athlete to be an exemplary role model: bringing the sport and sportsperson into unreasonable and unfair disrepute, Jonson, PT, Lynch, S and Adair, D., Australian and New Zealand Sports Law Journal, Volume 8(1), pp.55-88, (2013). Elite athletes are generally assigned as being a role model by virtue of moral clauses in their employment contracts. The authors argue that athlete contracts are often vague or broad regarding role model expectations. It recommends moral clauses in contracts should be reframed and athletes should be assisted in understanding and appreciating the nature of moral clauses. In addition, there should be public discussion on the designation and expectation of the athlete as a role model to ensure reasonableness and propriety of treatment for our athletes. The article utilises Australian cases and athlete contracts to discuss this issue.
Role models, sporting success and participation: a review of sports coaching's ancillary roles, Lyle, John, International Journal of Coaching Science, Volume 7(2), pp.25-40, (2013). Appropriate role models such as coaches are essential elements in a high quality sporting environment: these will contribute, along with many other factors, to the perception of sport as an attractive, attainable and rewarding experience. This review suggests that coaches should emphasise qualities of determination, hard work, coping and moral behaviour. However, coaches should also take care when using other athletes as inspirational examples or models of appropriate behaviour, and bear in mind their own status as role models to younger impressionable athletes.
Using Role Models to Help Celebrate Paralympic Sport, Mastro J, Ahrens C, Statton N, The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Volume 83(4), (January 2013). The article discusses ways in which role models from disability sports can be implemented into a Paralympic physical education unit. According to the article, these role models can be used in a variety of ways including as speakers, demonstrating Paralympic sports, and helping teach the sport to students.
Why do governments invest in elite sport? A polemic, Grix J and Carmichael F, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 4(1), pp.73-90, (March 2012). This paper examines the reasons generally given by advanced capitalist countries for investing in elite sport. While the focus of this paper is on the United Kingdom’s sport policy, other capitalist nations are discussed, including Australia and Canada. The authors focus on the proposition put forward by these governments that, “elite sport success promotes participation among the population”. Given the nature of certain assumptions, the discussion around the link between elite sporting success and grassroots participation is often controversial and circular arguments ensue. Although significant research supports the link between sport participation and personal health and wellbeing; extending this logic to sport policy and population outcomes is problematic. The proposed rationale is termed the ‘double pyramid theory’ – that is, if a high percentage of the population participate in sport there are bound to be more Olympic champions; and conversely, the existence of champion role models encourages grassroots participation. The authors conclude that, based on evidence from existing research, this position cannot be substantiated.
Australian athletes' health behaviours and perceptions of role modelling and marketing of unhealthy products, Grunseit A, MacNiven R, Orr R, et.al., Health Promotion Journal of Australia, Volume 23(1), pp.63-69, (2012). Most athletes surveyed supported a role for athletes in promoting physical activity and obesity prevention, and disagreed that athletes should promote unhealthy foods and alcohol (73.9%).
The inspirational function of role models for sport participation and development, De Croock S, De Bosscher V, van Bottenburg M, European Association of Sport Management Congress 2012 Abstract Book, (2012). This research shows that only 10% of elite athletes have been inspired by other elite athletes in order to start with their current sport. Mostly they were encouraged by their parents (59%) and friends (28%) to practice their current sport.

Let Kids Be Kids - the kids and sports icons. Play by the Rules, (2017)
Chloe Esposito helps mentor young modern pentathletes, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (26 February 2017)
Play. Sport. Australia. Sporting Heroes, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (2 November 2016)
Stick With It: Laura Geitz, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (1 May 2016)
Stick with it: Stephen Moore, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (1 May 2016)
Play. Sport. Australia. No Time for Never, Australian Sports Commission, YouTube, (7 October 2015)

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Organisational capacity

A strong and growing participation and membership base is critically important to sporting organisations in terms of attracting investment and ensuring sustainability.

On-going participation in sport is usually contingent upon satisfaction with the overall service provided. This has implications for the standard and accessibility of facilities, as well as the capacity of a sporting organisation to provide coaching, officiating, and management support. Satisfaction and continued participation is also linked to a positive, healthy, and inclusive culture within the sporting environment.

A Swimming Australia market research survey (unpublished) looked at swimming participation as a ‘value for money’ proposition by parents. The most prominent reasons parents gave for encouraging their children to participate in competitive swimming were:

swimming is a safe and healthy sport;
swimming offers a high level of personal satisfaction; and
swimming is a life-long activity.

In contrast, reasons for dissatisfaction with the sport of swimming were: high training costs; competition entry fees; and poor quality coaching and facilities.

Resources and reading

Culture of competition discourages some kids from sport, Victoria University media release, (6 May 2019). A study of Aussie sports clubs finds that a culture of competitiveness is preventing kids from diverse backgrounds and abilities from participating in junior sport. The research also showed that many clubs were uncertain about the concept and how it related to them, or how to actively promote diversity and social inclusion. Some other key findings included: Diversity was often viewed as diverting resources from a club’s core business, which revolved around organising teams and improving playing skills; Clubs that actively promoted diversity were generally regarded by coaches and parents from outside clubs as not serious clubs, and suitable only for children who were ‘no good’ at sport; Men at clubs that focused on competition above participation were, on average, more likely to be homophobic, endorse stricter gender roles, enforce violence as a natural masculine trait, and were less likely to hold pro-disability attitudes.
Inclusion and diversity - what can you do? Play by the Rules, (accessed 24 February 2021). There are a number of steps that a club can take to create a welcoming and inclusive environment for all participants.
Making sporting clubs healthy and welcoming environments: A strategy to increase participation, Eime R, Payne W and Harvey J, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 11(2), pp.146-154, (2008). Sporting clubs are an ideal setting to promote community-wide participation in physical activity. This study explored the factors affecting the development of supportive environments as a mechanism to increase participation in club sport. Although State Sporting Association Executive Officers believe that the creation of a supportive environment will facilitate sporting club membership, the data collected from affiliated clubs indicate incomplete development of this focus area because of limited club capacity and limited support to clubs from state or national sporting organisations. An overriding factor affecting the capacity of clubs to enact change was the presence or absence of planning at high levels with the sport. Clubs that do not offer a safe and unwelcoming environment are unlikely to increase their membership.
Marketing, NSW Office of Sport, (accessed 24 February 2021). Resources for sports clubs in marketing basics, marketing plans, media and social media.
One size does not fit all: implications of sports club diversity for their effectiveness as a policy tool and for government support, Nichols G and James M, Managing Leisure, Volume 13(2), pp.104-114, (2008). This article looked at the structure of netball clubs in England and examined the tension between government policy to promote sports participation through sports clubs that use more formal management practices, and the possibility that this may ignore the contribution made by smaller clubs and their distinctive cultures.

Boys and Pony Club, Pony Club Australia, (February 2021). PCA conducted a survey to find out what boys (Pony Club members and non-members) like and don't like about Pony Club, or any obstacles they face to join a Pony Club. The key issues influencing males joining and
staying are attached.
More people, more active, more often, Sport and Recreation Spatial Research Report, (November 2014). This report provides an analysis of sport facilities in Victoria. There were considerable differences noted in the provision of facilities, per player and per population, across Victorian local government areas (LGAs). There was a direct relationship between the provision of courts per 1000 persons and usage (i.e. high rates of participation for high court density and lower participation rate when fewer courts are provided).

Can't play, won't play: longitudinal changes in perceived barriers to participation in sports clubs across the child-adolescent transition, Basterfield L, Gardner L, Reilly J, et.al., BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, Volume 2(1), (2016). This longitudinal study of children and adolescents uses an ecological model of physical activity to assess changes in barriers to participation in sports clubs and to identify age-specific and weight-specific targets for intervention. The analysis showed that barriers at age 9 were predominantly of a physical or environmental nature. Young children relied upon parental involvement for transport, costs and permission to participate; also, there was a lack of suitable club infrastructure. At age 12 years the perceived barriers were predominantly classed as intrapersonal. Reponses for not participating in sport included – it’s boring and my friends don’t go to sport.
Correlates of youth sport attrition: A review and future directions, Balisha S, Rainhama D, Blancharda C, et.al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 15(4), pp.429-439, (2014). Evidence suggests that sport is a powerful context for promoting the health and well-being of youth. Given the potential benefits of youth sport, this study sought to identify correlates (i.e. factors) of youth sport attrition and evaluate the strength of evidence for each correlate. One hundred forty-one distinct correlates were examined from published literature between 1982 and 2012. It was concluded that sport participation requires both opportunities and the motivation for youth to engage. Reasons for attrition were identified as being biological, intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy related.
Delivering Sports Participation Legacies at the Grassroots Level: The Voluntary Sports Clubs of Glasgow 2014, Macrae E, Journal of Sport Management, Volume 31(1), pp.15-26, (2017). This study investigated the experiences of volunteer sport clubs (VSCs) in Glasgow, before, during, and after key mega-events, with a focus on the impact of both the 2012 London Olympics and, in particular, the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games. Following Glasgow 2014, Sport Scotland released figures showing that between 2011 and 2015 there was an 11% increase in overall memberships (junior and senior) in the 17 Commonwealth Games sports, with some sports experiencing significant membership increases. Club membership is used to justify the legacy of major sporting events. This research identified key areas where focus should be placed when planning for any form of sports participation legacy from future mega-events: (1) ensuring VSC capacity; (2) providing tools for VSCs to retain new members; and (3) visibility of VSCs during and after the mega events. This study found that 64% of the clubs surveyed said they would not have the capacity to sustain a significant increase in members; given limitations in facilities, coaching, volunteers, safety considerations, etc. There appears to be few contingency plans in place to ensure that potential members have an alternative pathway to follow, and do not simply fall away from the sport. Although clubs could offer information and guidance, they were generally unable to offer full membership to every newcomer. The initial enthusiasm sparked by the Games could be lost, thus perpetuating the participation ‘spike phenomenon’ experienced during mega events. It remains to be seen if participation numbers among VSCs in Scotland can be sustained. Policy makers continue to champion the idea that the trickle-down effect of hosting a mega event will encourage a rise in post-event sport participation, but the evidence suggests that there is a greater need for localised strategies and initiatives to be set in place to encourage any sustained positive impact on participation.
The influence of a Healthy Welcoming Environment on participation in club sport by adolescent girls: a longitudinal study, Casey MM; Eime RM; Harvey JT; et.al., BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation , Volume 9, article 12, (19 May 2017). This study investigated the perceived influence of a Healthy Welcoming Environment (HWE) on participation in sports clubs among adolescent girls, and how these perceptions changed longitudinally. HWE factors included sports injury prevention, smoke-free, responsible serving of alcohol, sun protection, healthy eating, and welcoming and inclusive environments. Year 7 and Year 11 female students completed all three. Most agreed that characteristics of HWEs were a positive influence on their participation in sports clubs, except those relating to alcohol and Sunsmart. Alcohol and friendliness factors of the club were regarded as being positively influential by higher percentages of non-metropolitan than metropolitan respondents.
Making sporting clubs healthy and welcoming environments: A strategy to increase participation, Eime R, Payne W and Harvey J, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 11(2), pp.146-154, (2008). Sporting clubs are an ideal setting to promote community-wide participation in physical activity. This study explored the factors affecting the development of supportive environments as a mechanism to increase participation in club sport. Although State Sporting Association Executive Officers believe that the creation of a supportive environment will facilitate sporting club membership, the data collected from affiliated clubs indicate incomplete development of this focus area because of limited club capacity and limited support to clubs from state or national sporting organisations. An overriding factor affecting the capacity of clubs to enact change was the presence or absence of planning at high levels with the sport. Clubs that do not offer a safe and unwelcoming environment are unlikely to increase their membership.
Participation-performance tension and gender affect recreational sports clubs’ engagement with children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities, Spaaij R, Lusher D, Jeanes R, et.al., PLoS ONE, 14(4): e0214537, (2019). This mixed methods study investigated how diversity is understood, experienced and managed in junior sport. The study combined in-depth interviews (n = 101), surveys (n = 450) and observations over a three-year period. The results revealed that a focus on performance and competitiveness negatively affected junior sports clubs’ commitment to diversity and inclusive participation. Gender and a range of attitudes about diversity were also strongly related. On average, we found that those who identified as men were more likely to support a pro-performance stance, be homophobic, endorse stricter gender roles, and endorse violence as a natural masculine trait. In addition, those who identified as men were less likely to hold pro-disability attitudes. These findings suggest that the participation-performance tension and gender affect to what extent, and how, sports clubs engage children and young people with diverse backgrounds and abilities.
Social climate profiles in adolescent sports: Associations with enjoyment and intention to continue, Gardner L, Magee C and Vella S, Journal of Adolescence, Volume 52, pp.112-123, (2016). This study explored whether adolescent sports participants' perceptions of the social climate fall into distinct profiles, and whether these profiles are related to enjoyment and intention to continue with organised sport. 313 Australian adolescents, mean age 13 years, participated in this study. Four distinct profiles were identified: (1) positive social climate; (2) diminished social climate; (3) positive coach relationship quality; and, (4) positive friendship quality. Participants reporting positive social climate and positive coach relationship quality profiles were most likely to continue in organised sport. The results highlight the value of positive coach-athlete relationships and an overall positive social climate for retaining adolescents in sport programs.
Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, Peter A. Witt, Tek B. Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach). Interpersonal constraints include parental pressure and loss of feelings of ownership and not having enough time to participate in other age-appropriate activities. Finally, structural constraints include time (for training and travel), injuries, cost, and inadequate facilities.
Why do children take part in, and remain involved in sport? a literature review and discussion of implications for coaches, Bailey R, Cope E and Pearce G, International Journal of Coaching Science, Volume 7(1), pp.55-74, (2013). This review found that children’s participation in sport is mediated by five primary factors: (1) perception of competence; (2) fun and enjoyment; (3) parents; (4) learning new skills; and (5) friends and peers. These findings suggest that, in addition to the generally acknowledged psychological factors, the social-cultural context in which children play influences their motivations to participate.
Why children join and stay in sports clubs: case studies in Australian, French and German swimming clubs, Light R, Harvey S and Memmert D, Sport, Education and Society, Volume 18(4), pp.550-566, (2013). This article builds upon research on youth sport clubs conducted from a socio-cultural perspective by reporting on a study that inquired into the reasons why children aged 9–12 joined swimming clubs in France, Germany and Australia. Comprising three case studies it employed a mixed method approach with results considered within the framework of Côté and colleagues' Development Model of Sport Participation. It identifies the importance of parents, the social dimensions of experience in the clubs and of appropriate competition in attracting the children to the clubs and keeping them there.

Drivers of Participation, Sport Australia, (accessed 24 February 2021). A toolkit to support organisations to design and deliver participation outcomes, to get more Australians moving more often. The toolkit covers drivers and barriers of participation, trends that impact sport participation, and planning methodology.
Participation Design Toolkit, Sport Australia, (accessed 26 February 2021). This toolkit will help sports design quality participation experiences and attract and retain more participants. The information, resources and templates will assist sport to develop effective participation plans and co-design participant-centred products and experiences that are informed by market insights and evidence-based approaches. Also provides links to additional evidence base and best-practice approaches to plan and design participation experiences that are focused on the needs of participants.

Understanding the sports consumer, Belinda Clark, Head of Junior Cricket, Cricket Australia, Our Sporting Future conference , Gold Coast Convention and Exhibition Centre, QLD, (17 November 2017).
Staying ahead of the game in a fast changing world, Dr Amanda orange, Director People and Culture, PwC, Dominic Wall, Royal and Ancient Golf Club and Danni Di Toro, Vice Chair, APC Athlete’s Commission, Our Sporting Future conference, Gold Coast Convention and Exhibition Centre, QLD, (16 November 2017).
Understanding the sports consumer, Janette Brocklesby, Research Lead, Community Sport NZ, Jo Juler, Head of Marketing, Tennis Australia, Kerry Tavrou, Gymnastics Victoria, Our Sporting Future conference, Gold Coast Convention and Exhibition Centre, QLD, (16 November 2017).
FitNSW 2016: Supporting local communities to move more, NSW Parliament House, Macquarie Street Sydney, (9 March 2016).
Panel: Product development - new formats of sport, Anne-Marie Phippard - Head of Community, Tony Sherwill - Bowls Australia Ltd, Tim Klar - Athletics Australi, Facilitator - Kerry Turner - Manager Sport and Recreation NSW, Our Sporting Future conference, Gold Coast Convention and Exhibition Centre, QLD, (23 October 2015).
Growing Sport Participation, Rochelle Eime, Founder and Director, Sport and Recreational Spatial, Australian Sport Technologies Network Annual Conference (21 October 2014)
Future Trends in Sport Participation, Paul Fairweather, Deputy General Manager (Sport Insights), Australian Sports Commission, Australian Sport Technologies Network Annual Conference (21 October 2014)
Capability building — membership is dead, Belinda Moore, Strategic Membership Solutions, Our Sporting Future 2013 (12 April 2013)
The changing face of participation, Sam Almaliki, Commissioner — NSW Community Relations Commission “For a Multicultural NSW”, Kitty Chiller, Active After-school Communities program, Brendan Lynch, exSport, Landry Fevre, General Manager, Media, Commercial Strategy, NBN Co, Our Sporting Future 2013 (12 April 2013)

How to get kids moving: expand, extend, and enhance physical activity opportunities, BioMed Central, YouTube, (10 February 2017). This video summarises research published in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity on the theory of expanded, extended and enhanced opportunities for youth physical activity promotion.

Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.

Coaching

Coaches at all levels exert great influence on their players/athletes and can play a significant role in maintaining participation in sport and physical activity at all ages. Their philosophy and method of coaching can shape attitudes, motivation, and impact upon participants wellbeing. Quality coaching not only delivers optimal physiological, technical, and tactical aspects of a sport, it provides experiences that hook participants (and their family) into a sport by providing appropriate contexts, activities, encouragement, and motivation in a safe and fun environment.

Coaches can help participants, especially children, develop physical and social skills. Participants, of all ages, who receive quality coaching tend to have higher long-term participation rates than participants who aren't coached.

The contrasting situation can also occur, the coach-participant relationship can sometimes produce conflict that serves as a trigger for leaving a sport or reducing participation.

Resources and reading

4 steps to becoming a role model coach. Jim Grove, Active for Life, (15 September 2016)
The Most Important Aspect of Coaching and Leadership - Being a Good Role Model, Jeff Haefner, Breakthrough Basketball, (2009). The legendary coach John Wooden says, "A leader's most powerful ally is his or her own example."

Encouraging kids' physical activity engagement and wellbeing by improving their experiences in organised sport, European Commission (2014). Research has found that one of the important determinants of whether a child continues playing sports or decides to quit is the motivational climate created by coaches. The European Union (EU) funded research project ‘PAPA’ involved a training program for community based football coaches, Empowering Coaching.™ Within the PAPA project, researchers in the United Kingdom, Norway, Spain, France and Greece focused specifically on engagement with children aged 10 to 14 years through grassroots football. The research team partnered with football associations in the 5 countries to train coach educators to deliver the Empowering Coaching™ workshop to grassroots coaches. In all, 1,159 grassroots football coaches were trained during the period April 2009 to September 2013. Preliminary data suggests that the coach training programme had measurable effects on children’s ongoing participation. Trained coaches made children feel that they were playing in a more empowering environment, and these children reported that they were more likely to continue playing. Trained coaches in a club setting were also more likely to engage with parents than coaches in a school setting, and thus help to change the attitudes of parents to become more ‘encouraging’ of their child’s participation in sport.
'The Impact of Coaching on Participants 2017', UK Coaching, (November 2017). This report presents the results from a four year study examining the experience of both adult and young participants who were either coached or not coached. Additional questions were added in the final year to focus on the reasons why people stop taking part in sport or physical activity. Participants were grouped into several market segments: active committed; active at risk; active returners; and inactive dropped out. Overall the results indicate that both adults and young people who are being coached are more likely to continue being committed to sport and physical activity, less likely to stop participating, and more likely to return to activity if they do stop (i.e. due to injury). However, the responses also demonstrate that people being coached are just as likely as those not being formally coached to think about stopping. Positive coach/participant relationships, and matching delivery to individual needs are important aspects for maintaining participation for all age groups.
The impact of coaching on participants, Hopkinson M, Sports Coach UK, (2014). This report presents the findings from the first year of a four-year study of the impact of coaching (and coaches) upon sports participation. The current results provide evidence to support the belief that quality coaching can help bring people into sport, enhance their enjoyment, and increase how often they play and the likelihood of them staying involved. Key results from the survey identify how important quality coaching is. The report suggests that both adults and young people will have more positive playing experiences the higher the quality of their coach. The survey aimed to gather views from both people who are coached in their chosen sport, and those who play but do not receive coaching.
Increasing Participation in Sport: The role of the coach, North J, Sports Coach UK, (2007). The coach is uniquely positioned to establish sporting environments that emphasise enjoyment, encouragement, social support, goal setting and motivation. Research suggests that coaches contribute to the psychological and social development of participants, instilling confidence and contributing to lifelong involvement in sport.
‘Member Retention and Acquisition’, Swimming Australia, (unpublished). Market research surveyed parents and swimmers to determine what factors influenced leaving the sport. In 2% of cases the reason cited was ‘issues with coaching’, and 6% responded that their reason for leaving the sport was too much emphasis on competition, which is a factor that a coach has some control over.
‘Retaining More Kids for Longer’, Swimming Australia, (unpublished). Report found that coaches putting too much pressure on junior athletes was one of several triggers for leaving the sport.
The Role of Coaching in Participation, Sports Coach UK, (March 2014). Report suggest that good coaches promote fun activities, provide encouragement, and help children develop physical and social skills within the sporting environment. Parents surveyed about their children’s participation in sport acknowledged the coach’s role in promoting confidence, social and physical development, and safety. Good coaches were identified as being able to tailor sporting environments to meet the needs of individuals and groups. It was identified that participants who received coaching tended to have higher long-term participation rates than participants who did not receive coaching.

Correlates of youth sport attrition: A review and future directions, Balisha S, Rainhama D, Blancharda C, et.al., Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 15(4), pp.429-439, (2014). Given the potential benefits of youth sport, this study sought to identify correlates (i.e. factors) of youth sport attrition and evaluate the strength of evidence for each correlate. One hundred forty-one distinct correlates were examined from published literature between 1982 and 2012. Reasons for attrition were identified as being biological, intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy related. Positive coaching relationship was one of the interpersonal correlates. It showed a low negative correlation with attrition (i.e. positive coach relationships kept athletes playing).
Personal Reasons for Withdrawal from Team Sports and the Influence of Significant Others among Youth Athletes, Rottensteiner, Christoph; Laakso, Lauri; Pihlaja, Tuomo; et.al., International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, Volume 8(1), pp.19-32, (March 2013). The aim of this study was to identify the main reasons for withdrawal from team sports and to examine the influence of significant others (i.e., coaches, parents, peers, and siblings) in the decision making concerning withdrawal from youth sports. The results indicated that having other things to do and a decline in excitement were the most important reasons for withdrawal. Coaches and teammates appeared to be the two main groups of significant others who influenced young player's decision making related to their withdrawal. Statistically significant differences in withdrawal components related to ability and social issues were found between gender and years of involvement. Recommendations and practical implications for coaches and policy makers to reduce the withdrawal rate among young athletes are provided.
Professionalization of Coaches to Reduce Emotionally Harmful Coaching Practices: Lessons Learned from the Education Sector, Kerr, Gretchen A.; Stirling, Ashley E., International Journal of Coaching Science, Volume 9(1), pp.21-35, (January 2015). While sport participation has been associated with numerous developmental benefits, the sport environment can also be harmful for many young athletes. Previous researchers have reported that harmful, emotionally abusive, coaching practices are experienced by many athletes and that these practices tend to be normalized by coaches, parents, and athletes alike.
Role models, sporting success and participation: a review of sports coaching's ancillary roles. Lyle, John, International Journal of Coaching Science, Volume 7(2), pp.25-40, (2013). Appropriate role models such as coaches are essential elements in a high quality sporting environment: these will contribute, along with many other factors, to the perception of sport as an attractive, attainable and rewarding experience. This review suggests that coaches should emphasise qualities of determination, hard work, coping and moral behaviour. However, coaches should also take care when using other athletes as inspirational examples or models of appropriate behaviour, and bear in mind their own status as role models to younger impressionable athletes.
Social climate profiles in adolescent sports: Associations with enjoyment and intention to continue, Gardner L, Magee C and Vella S, Journal of Adolescence, Volume 52m oo,112-123, (2016). This study explored whether adolescent sports participants' perceptions of the social climate fall into distinct profiles, and whether these profiles are related to enjoyment and intention to continue with organised sport. 313 Australian adolescents, mean age 13 years, participated in this study. Four distinct profiles were identified: (1) positive social climate; (2) diminished social climate; (3) positive coach relationship quality; and, (4) positive friendship quality. Participants reporting positive social climate and positive coach relationship quality profiles were most likely to continue in organised sport. The results highlight the value of positive coach-athlete relationships and an overall positive social climate for retaining adolescents in sport programs.
Why Children/Youth Drop Out of Sports, Peter A. Witt, Tek B. Dangi, Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Volume 36(3), (2018). Forty percent of kids played team sports on a regular basis in 2013. Yet, numerous children and youth drop out of sports every year as well. This article explores the reasons why children and youth drop out of sports and offers suggestions for how parents, coaches, and youth development professionals can help to minimize unwarranted and premature dropping out. Three sets of reasons or constraints have been offered for why children and youth drop out of sports. Intrapersonal constraints include lack of enjoyment (not having fun, being bored); low perceptions of physical competence; intrinsic pressures (e.g., stress); and perceptions of negative team dynamics (negative feelings toward team or coach).

Drivers of Participation, Sport Australia, (accessed 24 February 2021). A toolkit to support organisations to design and deliver participation outcomes, to get more Australians moving more often. The toolkit covers drivers and barriers of participation, trends that impact sport participation, and planning methodology.

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