• Managing Major Sports Events: Theory and Practice, Milena M. Parent, Aurélia Ruetsch, Routledge, (2021). A complete introduction to the principles and practical skills that underpin the running and hosting of major sports events, from initial bid to post-event legacy and sustainability. It covers every key area in the event management process, including: Bidding, leadership, and planning; Marketing and human resource management; Venues and ceremonies; Communications and technology (including social media); Functional area considerations (including sport, protocol, and event services); Security and risk management; Games-time considerations; Event wrap-up and evaluation; Legacy and sustainability.

• The emerging trends influencing major event hosting in sport, Global Sports, (19 July 2017). There is an emerging trend for host cities, nations or national associations to change the format of the sports events that they are bidding to host, in order to provoke desired impacts and achieve the legacy objectives that they, as hosts, are seeking from that particular event. In turn, the event owners (international federations, continental federations and commercial bodies) are increasingly open to the format of their events being tweaked and moulded, host city by host city, to aid organisers in their local or national legacy goals, and in turn, assist their own international ones.

• Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). The Games Value Framework provides a holistic basis for assessing the potential costs and benefits of hosting the Commonwealth Games. For cities considering hosting the Games and wishing to apply the Games Value Framework, the first step is to review their city context and ambitions. Cities can then use the Framework to support their decision making by understanding the potential costs and benefits of hosting the Games and how the Games can support a city in achieving its wider aims.
• The Mega-Sporting Event Lifecycle: Embedding Human Rights from Vision to Legacy, Mega-Sporting Events Platform for Human Rights, (April 2018). This guide presents the lifecycle of a mega-sporting event, with specific elements of good practice at each stage that those involved in hosting the event should integrate into their planning, delivery and legacy in order to ensure a rights-compliant event.
• Olympic Games Framework: produced for the 2024 Olympic Games, International Olympic Committee, (May 2015). Hosting the Olympic Games provides a powerful catalyst for cities and countries to invest in their future and create a lasting legacy of real value and significance. Every host’s legacy vision is different and should be aligned with the city’s long-term development plans. But Olympic legacies broadly fall into five distinct categories: – Infrastructure – Economic – Sporting – Social – Environmental By identifying and agreeing to a legacy plan during the candidature phase with a clear business case and defined responsibilities for implementation, a city can achieve real change. The Olympic Games act to clarify priorities; accelerate long-term plans; and enable bold decisions which move cities and nations forward in ways that could otherwise take decades.

• The sport mega-events of the 2020s: governance, impacts and controversies, Jan Andre Lee Ludvigsen, Joel Rookwood, Daniel Parnell, Sport in Society, special issue, Volume 25(4), pp.705-711, (2022). It is well-established that sport mega-events are socially, culturally, financially, politically and historically important and valuable. Though, sport mega-events must not be unequivocally glorified. They have also been subject to increased opposition, criticism and scrutiny. These typically relate to their astronomical economic costs, their physical, social and spatial impacts on public space and their failure to produce those ‘legacies’ that regularly are promised or exaggerated in the bidding stages. All these social realities feed into the three subthemes of this Special Issue. These include governance, impacts and controversies. As we argue, these three themes will follow most – if not all – mega-events in the 2020s. Simultaneously, these subthemes often inter-link and may reinforce each other, as we will unpack further.
• “Winning the women’s world cup”: gender, branding, and the Australia/New Zealand As One 2023 social media strategy for the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023™, Adam Beissel, Verity Postlethwaite, Andrew Grainger, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.768-798, (2022). In this article we critically explore the social media strategy of the successful Australia-New Zealand ‘As One’ joint bid for the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023™. We explore how the As One bid harnessed Twitter to communicate a hosting vision that appealed to multiple audiences while strategically, and successfully, resonating with contemporary FIFA politics. We adopt quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods to develop the constructed presence and narrative patterns from the As One bid’s Twitter activity. Our findings suggest content relied on two primary ‘legacy’ narratives which both conformed to current FIFA strategy and broader social and regional politics: growing football participation among women and girls and strengthening cultural, economic, and political relations in the Asia-Pacific. Ultimately, we argue the use of Twitter was strategic and targeted, deliberately appropriating popular FIFA narratives to build an emotive ‘legacy’ vision to gain support from voting members of the FIFA Council.
• Observing the limits of steering - Norway’s abortive Bid for the 2022 Olympic Winter Games in Oslo, Jan Ove Tangen, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, (11 November 2021). This article analyses the Oslo 2022 bidding process in particular and other mega-events in general as cases of political steering. The political, economic, and social outcomes are not always as expected. People other than those who initiate and carry out the bidding process pay the bills. Are all these occurrences coincidences or consequences? Niklas Luhmann’s system theoretical approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of this complexity. This study suggests extending and strengthening the theory with other theoretical concepts to carry out this meta-theoretical endeavour. Empirical research on the Oslo case in particular and other bidding cases for hosting mega-events in general is used to substantiate the presented arguments. This study’s main finding is that each stakeholder, often as a social subsystem, operates from its code or logic, irritating other stakeholders to act according to their code and logic, thereby reducing the possibility to steer the process. In the Oslo case, the process ended when the Norwegian people said the event was not worth it. This result falls in line with other studies of failing bids that show reactions and resistance against elites’ powers and towards democratic beneficiaries.
• Determinants of support and participation in a major sport event referendum, Mel Johnston, Michael Naylor, Geoff Dickson, et.al., Sport Management Review, Volume 24(1), pp.134-155, (March 2021). In recent years, referenda have been used to inform decisions to bid on major sport events. Recognising referenda as a means to engage a community in a major sport event, the purpose of this study was to investigate the determinants of referenda support and participation intention. A sample of 603 New Zealanders completed a questionnaire a) the intention to participate in such a referendum. Based on exploratory factor analysis assessing b) their support for a referendum on their city bidding to host the Commonwealth Games, and multinomial logistic regression, the key findings are that political cynicism, civic duty, event status and involvement affected voters’ referendum support, while political cynicism, civic duty, political interest, event status and involvement impacted their voting intentions. The results have implications for prospective host cities, sport managers, policymakers, and ordinary citizens.
• The pursuit of legitimacy through strategic alliances: the examination of international joint sport event bidding, Jinsu Byun, Dana Ellis, Becca Leopkey, European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 21(4), pp.544-563, (2021). Given the increased attention on joint sport event bids this study examines how the practices and structures created through the formation of a joint bidding alliance could influence the creation of diverse types of organizational legitimacy. A descriptive qualitative approach analyzing a combination of archival materials and interviews related to 15 international large-scale joint sport event bidding cases was completed. Results suggest various practices and structures are created through forming joint bids. Propositions that suggest how joint bidding alliances can result in the creation of various legitimacy types: managerial/technical, consequential, procedural, and linkage legitimacy are provided. This study extends the sport event literature by examining joint bidding alliances as organizational strategies. A model illustrating the legitimation process of joint bids in sporting events and implications of this study is suggested.
• Every loser wins: leveraging ‘unsuccessful’ Olympic bids for positive benefits, Tom Bason, Jonathan Grix, European Sport Management Quarterly, (16 November 2020). The implications of this study are twofold. First, it provides cities with insight into how even an unsuccessful Olympic bid can provide benefits. Crucially, only legitimate bidders contributing to already existing plans can access government funding. Second, this research contributes to the bidding literature, providing new empirical material derived using a diverse case study approach, and to the leveraging literature through adapting, extending and updating Chalip’s (2004) conceptual model of event leverage.
• What makes an event a mega-event? Definitions and sizes, Martin Müller, Leisure Studies, Volume 34(6), pp.627-642, (January 2015). There is considerable ambiguity about what makes an event a mega-event. Intervening in this debate, this paper develops a definition and classification scheme for mega-events. On the basis of a review of existing definitions, it proposes four constitutive dimensions of mega-events: visitor attractiveness, mediated reach, costs and transformative impact. The paper develops indicators for each dimension and maps onto these four dimensions a sample of the latest editions of nine large events (Expo, Summer and Winter Olympics, Football World Cup, European Football Championship, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games, Pan American Games, Universiade). From this, it develops a multi-dimensional, point-based classification scheme of large events according to size, distinguishing between major events, mega-events and the recently emerging class of giga-events. Concluding, it identifies the need for more systematic data on the size, costs and impacts of a broad range of large-scale events over time.
• How to win a bid for major sporting events? A stakeholder analysis of the 2018 Olympic Winter Games French bid, Christopher Hautbois, Milena Parent, Benoit Séguin, Sport Management Review, Volume 15(3), pp.263-275, (August 2012). While understanding the planning and hosting of major sporting events is a popular research area, less is known about the bid process despite the potential economic and political spinoffs. Some studies offer criteria for successful bids and even consider the stakeholder network as a key factor. Considering the importance of the stakeholder network, we delve deeper into this area. Using the power, legitimacy and urgency framework by Mitchell et al. (1997), we examine the 2018 Olympic Winter Games’ French national bid competition (four candidacies) to analyse the stakeholder relationships, identify their salience and then determine stakeholder-based bid key success factors.

• International Association of Event Hosts [website], (accessed 2 November 2021). The International Association of Event Hosts (IAEH) exists for representatives of international destinations to collaborate together to generate the best possible value from hosting major sporting and cultural events, and provide a voice for ‘not for profit’ hosts of events. IAEH provides a platform for members to learn from the successes and challenges of major events, share knowledge and generate greater long term social and economic benefits from hosting events.
  • Event impact standards IAEH has worked with experienced event hosts, event owners and industry experts to provide the following guidance, and standard definitions, for measuring the impact of events and contributing to global sustainable development goals. IAEH members have made this guidance openly available and recommend that all research assessing impacts of major events aligns with it, whether for rights-owners, city or national governments, sports or arts organisations, tourism organisations, commercial sponsors, venues or charities. The guidance also aligns with the OECD Recommendation on Global Events and Local Development, adopted at the Ministerial Council Meeting on 30 May 2018 by all 38 OECD member countries. The Recommendation sets out internationally agreed framework conditions for realising sustainable global events.
• Common indicators for measuring the impact of events (1st edition), Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF), (October 2021). Overseen by ASOIF’s Commercial Advisory Group (CAG), the report consolidates relevant and easily available data in a clear way to ensure consistency of data gathering and reporting between events, with the intent of helping the industry deliver, and demonstrate, true value to investors and policy makers. It provides event professionals with a practical tool throughout the lifecycle of events, including a defined set of 30 “input”, 50 “output” and 10 “outcome” Key Performance Indicators from which rights owners and partners can gather data relevant to their own event objectives.
• ISO/DIS 22379 - Security and resilience — Guidelines for hosting and organizing citywide or regional events, ISO, (25 November 2019). World-class events such as the Olympic Games can help put cities or regions on the map, all the while attracting valuable visitor revenue and economic investment. They do, however, bring many security risks. A new International Standard is currently being developed to help cities manage big events with public safety and security at their heart. ISO 22379, Security and resilience – Guidelines for hosting and organizing large citywide events, aims to provide guidelines and expertise on how to manage risks, public safety and service continuity during a wide-scale event. When published, it will be the first International Standard of its kind, bringing together the knowledge and know-how of experts involved in hosting major events such as the Tokyo Olympics 2020, the Winter Olympics in Beijing in 2022, the Berlin Marathon, and many more. It will also help cities decide whether to hold the event or not, as it enables them to identify the real risks and costs that will be involved.
  • Voting on the draft ISO 22379, Security and resilience – Guidelines for hosting and organizing large citywide events began on 13 September 2021, and is due to finish on 6 December 2021.

• Sport participation and Olympic legacies : a comparative study, Spencer Harris and Mathew Dowling (eds.), Routledge, (2021). This book examines claims that the Olympic Games are a vehicle to inspire and increase mass sports participation. It focuses on the mass sport participation legacy of the most recent hosts of the summer Olympics, including Atlanta, Sydney, Athens, Beijing, London, Rio and Tokyo. It is organised by host city/country and applies an analytical framework to each, addressing the socio-political context that shapes sport policy, the key changes in sport policy, the structure and governance of community sport, the Olympic and Paralympic legacy, and the changes in mass sport participation before, during and after the games.
• Legacies and Mega Events: Fact or Fairy Tales? ByIan Brittain, Jason Bocarro, Terri Byers, et.al. (eds.), Routledge, (2017). This edited book, written by international experts, critically explores these multiple facets of the Mega Event legacy looking at the various economic, environmental and social impacts and benefits in multiple continents. It considers topics such as volunteering, participation, economics, sponsorship, ethics and technology in relation to legacy.
• Leveraging legacies for sports mega-events: concepts and cases, Jonathan Grix (ed.), Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan, (2014). This volume offers a panoramic and interdisciplinary view of the growing field of Sports Mega-Event studies. Contributions explore leveraging strategies and the legacies from previous sports megas (London, Seoul, Sydney, Vancouver) and recent and future 'emerging' states and their hosting strategies (India, China, Qatar, Russia, Brazil).
• Paralympic Legacies, David Legg, Keith Gilbert (eds.), Common Ground, (2011). Legacy remains one of the most important issues relating to multisport mega-events across the globe and it could be argued that the development of legacy is one of the most urgent imperatives in elite sport. In this regard the Paralympics is no exception to the quest for long term legacy; however, little in the way of documentation appears to be forthcoming from the International Paralympic community in this regard. This book reviews the concept of legacy across previous Paralympic Games by providing a series of chapters under the headings of ‘The Paralympic Legacy Debate’, ‘Paralympic City Legacies’, ‘Emerging Issues of Paralympic Legacy’ and ‘Reconceptualising Paralympic Legacies’. The issues arising are discussed in terms of a meta-analysis of the author’s work and offer interesting ideas which if taken up by the International Paralympic Committee, International Olympic Committee, Bid Committees, OCOG’s and major sports could change the face of Paralympic legacy towards the positive forever.
• Benchmark Games: the Sydney 2000 Paralympic Games. Cashman, R and Darcy S, Sydney, Walla Walla Press in conjunction with the Australian Centre for Olympic Studies, University of Technology of Sydney, (2008). This book is the first study of the staging and legacy of a particular Paralympic Games. It documents and analyses benchmarks such as media, the community and infrastructure. (Held by the Clearinghouse for Sport, GV722.2000.C37)

• 2032 Brisbane Olympics – Leverage Opportunities [survey], Australian Sailing, (15 November 2021). The announcement of the 2032 Brisbane Olympics is extremely exciting and paves the way for a once in a generation opportunity for Queensland sport to benefit by leveraging the focus on sport that hosting an Olympic games will generate. Australian Sailing will work with clubs and class associations to identify opportunities and define how together we can maximise beneficial outcomes for the whole sailing community both now and well beyond 2032. Winning Gold medals is not the purpose of this conversation- those strategies are in place and already have good traction. The theme of this conversation will revolve around marketing and promotion, instructor/coach/officials’ development, sailor pathways, creating lifelong sailors, retention of youth, club capacity building, mass participation programs, inclusion, etc. We would love to hear your views.
• Defining and measuring social legacies of sport events, sportanddev.org, (11 October 2021). What are the legacies of Mega Sports Events, and how can sport for development outcomes be conceived, implemented and measured as sustainable legacies? In the spirit of fostering dialogues and exploring new horizons, SCORE – a Sport Think Action Tank based in Lausanne – organized a SCORE Lab, a meeting which draws on expertise from within and outside of sports to address, in this case, problems and challenges faced by organizing committees, hosts cities and other stakeholders (local population and governing bodies) in the context of sport events legacy (i.e., measurement and communication).
• Creating a sustainable Heritage Sporting Event, sportanddev.org, (15 September 2021). Heritage Sport Events, like the Audencia-La Baule Triathlon, may be the sustainable alternative to Mega Sporting Events. An HSE is best defined as “an event, generally involving a single sport, that has taken place in the same place for many years and that has been held regularly since its foundation”. By nature, such events recur on a yearly basis and use or refer to the specific heritage of a territory. This allows host territories to accumulate expertise and consequently develop the event in the long run, taking into account local specificities, generating popular support and media recognition.
• Redefining legacy: How Brock University is maximizing impact from the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Julie Stevens and Sydney Millar, SIRCUIT, (19 April 2021). When we think of legacies from major games, often we think of new facilities, increased engagement in sport and physical activity, or heightened feelings of national pride. As a key partner in the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Brock University took an additional approach, leveraging the Games to invest in research, build curricular connections, and enhance community engagement.
• Host city and mega-events: Olympic legacy in Japan, Professor John Horne, Olympic Analysis, (2021). In this brief commentary I will refer to two distinctions with respect to legacies – that they can be tangible and intangible, but also universal and selective. It is well established that legacies can be tangible, that is related to, for example, changes in some way to the material or physical infrastructure or economic performance, and intangible, that is related to, for example, emotional responses to a mega-event whether individual or collective. Tangible legacies refer to substantial and long-standing changes to the urban infrastructure – the building of iconic stadia being one of the most notable when it comes to the Olympics. The intangible legacies of the Olympics refer predominantly to popular memories, evocations and analyses of specific events and incidents associated with the Games.
• Lessons from the Cricket World Cup: Ticketing Strategy, Global Sports, (28 August 2019). Steve Elworthy, the managing director of the ICC Cricket World Cup 2019 in England and Wales shares his experience of devising a strategy to sell tickets for a major event, and how it can help drive the growth of a sport.
• Scaling down the circus to scale up the benefits – A proposed future for international sport events, Marijke Taks (PhD), University of Ottawa, SIRCuit, (17 April 2018). As Canada considers bids for the 2026 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games, and the 2030 Commonwealth Games, this article examines the economic, tourism, social and sport participation impact claims of major international sport events. To maximize positive and minimize negative outcomes from hosting major sport events, we recommend a shift in thinking that builds on the opportunities smaller scale events present for host communities.
• Commonwealth Games assets gifted to Queensland communities, Premier and Minister for Trade, The Honourable Annastacia Palaszczuk and Minister for Innovation and Tourism Industry Development and Minister for the Commonwealth Games, The Honourable Kate Jones, Queensland Government media release, (18 May 2018). Millions of dollars’ worth of Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games assets will be gifted to Queensland sporting clubs, schools, councils and community organisations to deliver a legacy to last a lifetime.
• Sydney still reaping benefits of hosting Olympic Games 2000, International Olympic Committee, (20 August 2016). While the Opening Ceremony of the Olympic Games Rio 2016 shared a message of environmental protection with the world, sustainability is already a key focus of the International Olympic Committee and Olympic Agenda 2020.

• Ahead of the Games: evaluation report for the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games legacy program, Queensland Office of the Commonwealth Games, Department of Tourism, Major Events, Small Business and the Commonwealth Games, (November 2017). Provides a detailed overview of the projected impact of the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games on various legacy outcomes and economic indicators including: economic growth and tourism; international trade; Queensland businesses; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander initiatives; arts and culture; sport and healthy lifestyles; and engaged and inclusive communities.
• Gold Coast business and the Commonwealth Games: Impact, legacy and opportunity, Joan Carlini and Andrew O’Neil, Griffith University, (July 2017). This report seeks to provide clarity around the various opportunities for business resulting from GC2018. It also aims to assist business to set realistic expectations enabling strategic decisions that will drive success, long after the Games has concluded. The report is structured in two parts. Part one provides background and context by detailing the scope of GC2018, lessons from previous global sporting mega-events, and the unique characteristics of GC2018 in relation to the Gold Coast. Part two identifies the macro factors affecting the Gold Coast, and provides an in-depth analysis of the opportunities for business to leverage major benefits from GC2018.
• Olympic Games Rio 2016: The legacy, International Olympic Committee, (March 2017). The Olympic Games Rio 2016 delivered many inspiring athletic achievements that were witnessed and shared by a vast global audience through record-breaking media coverage and unprecedented levels of digital engagement. Against a backdrop of economic, political and social challenges, they also set new standards for legacy planning that have left an important heritage
• Olympic and Paralympic legacy: Inspired by 2012 – fourth annual report. UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport, (4 August 2016). Report by the UK government and the Mayor of London on the legacy of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. More reports available from the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic legacy archive.
• Special Report on Rio 2016: Perspectives beyond the mega-event, Simon Marijsse, Politheor, (June 2016). Since the 1984 LA Olympics, the Games have gone hand in hand with attracting foreign investment capital, boosting tourism and constructing large scale infrastructures. Eight Years later, the Barcelona Olympics presented us with an even larger story of visual promise and urban transformation. Post-Olympics Barcelona started to symbolise the blueprint for urban regeneration. In this Special Report, ten opinion articles tackle, each from within their policy field, the changes, failures and new initiatives that occurred over the last months in Rio.
• Snapshot Report - Embracing 2018 Legacy Program, State of Queensland, (2016). This report highlights the substantial work which has been undertaken to date by Games Partners1 to maximise legacy benefits for the Gold Coast and Queensland from hosting the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games™ (GC2018). In other areas, however, it establishes the starting point from which the Embracing 2018 Legacy Program must succeed in delivering long-term, lasting legacy benefits to the Gold Coast and Queensland.
• Rio 2016 Olympic Games Sustainability and Legacy Stories: a selection of good practices, International Academy of Sport Science and Technology (AISTS), (2016). This booklet outlines several initiatives that seeks to engage the wider audience on sustainability and legacy. It contains easy-tounderstand, positive stories that were collected by the AISTS during the 2016 Rio Games.Rio 2016 Olympic Games Sustainability and Legacy Stories: a selection of good practices (PDF - 7.6 MB). International Academy of Sport Science and Technology (AISTS), (2016). This booklet outlines several initiatives that seeks to engage the wider audience on sustainability and legacy. It contains easy-tounderstand, positive stories that were collected by the AISTS during the 2016 Rio Games.
• It’s how you play the game: Matching a region’s priorities with the right mega – or not so mega – event, Price Waterhouse Coopers, (April 2014). PwC’s publication presents a framework for helping a city or region decide which event to host, based on key questions under the categories of overall readiness, venues, legacy, supporting infrastructure and intellectual capital. The publication then goes on to explore a number of key aspects on hosting sports events, including ways in which a city or region can maximise the impact of hosting events.
• Local Development Benefits From Staging Global Events: Achieving The Local Development Legacy From 2012: A Peer Review Of The Olympic And Paralympic Legacy For East London Proposed By The Department Of Communities And Local Government, United Kingdom, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), (2010). The OECD LEED programme has been assessing the local benefits of hosting international events for several years. Local Development Benefits from Staging Global Events (2008) set out the OECD Conceptual Framework through analysis based on experience from over 30 cities and nations. In broad terms, the following are benefits that might reasonably be expected but, of course, are not guaranteed, to result from the hosting of global events. Benefits may be characterised as "primary" and "secondary" to indicate the time frame within which they occur, rather than overall significance. Primary benefits may well overlap temporally with secondary benefits if they are longer-term in nature.

• “Winning the women’s world cup”: gender, branding, and the Australia/New Zealand As One 2023 social media strategy for the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023™, Adam Beissel, Verity Postlethwaite, Andrew Grainger, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.768-798, (2022). In this article we critically explore the social media strategy of the successful Australia-New Zealand ‘As One’ joint bid for the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2023™. We explore how the As One bid harnessed Twitter to communicate a hosting vision that appealed to multiple audiences while strategically, and successfully, resonating with contemporary FIFA politics. We adopt quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods to develop the constructed presence and narrative patterns from the As One bid’s Twitter activity. Our findings suggest content relied on two primary ‘legacy’ narratives which both conformed to current FIFA strategy and broader social and regional politics: growing football participation among women and girls and strengthening cultural, economic, and political relations in the Asia-Pacific. Ultimately, we argue the use of Twitter was strategic and targeted, deliberately appropriating popular FIFA narratives to build an emotive ‘legacy’ vision to gain support from voting members of the FIFA Council.
• Challenges and key factors in planning legacies of mega sporting events: Lessons learned from London, Sochi, and Rio de Janeiro, Azzali, S., Archnet-IJAR, Volume 14(2), pp.203-218, (2020). The purpose of this paper is to identify replicable best practices and successful examples used in mega-events to transform events sites and venues into livable public open spaces (POS), enjoyed by the local communities. The research identified a framework of six major elements that determine, or contrast, the long-term use of events sites and sport facilities, and highlighted some main attributes to consider in order to transform sporting event sites into livable and enjoyable open spaces. It is expected that this framework can be used as a guidance to deliver sustainable events and long-term legacies and to define a strategy for optimization of planning mega sport events. Mega events provide near-unique, fast track opportunities for urban transformation. This research can be used as guidance for the overall mega sporting events stakeholders, such as the IOC, FIFA, and local organizing committees, to identify replicable best practices and successful examples in the leverage of mega events to transform events sites and venues into livable POS.
• Mapping research on legacy of mega sporting events: structural changes, consequences, and stakeholder evaluations in empirical studies, Joerg Koenigstorfer, Jason Bocarro, Terri Byers, et.al., Leisure Studies, Volume 38(6), pp.729-745, (2019). Findings from empirical studies on the legacy of hosting a mega sporting event are inconclusive. This paper considers empirical studies published in English language peer-reviewed journals between 1997 and 2016 to identify trends and gaps in current knowledge related to event-attributed changes in structures, consequences, and stakeholder evaluations. Following systematic literature search guidelines, 233 articles (238 studies) were coded. The authors assessed structural changes, consequences, and stakeholder evaluations. Contextual factors, such as type of event, timeframe, and geographical location were also considered, as well as research design, methods, and a risk of bias assessment. Most studies considered structural changes per se, without further specification (such as the urban and human level). Economic and social consequences were the two most often considered consequences. The range of stakeholders considered in the studies was diverse, although host city residents received the most research attention. The mapping helps scholars better understand dominant themes, critically appraise studies as well as identify gaps in existing research. The authors discuss managerial implications and propose research directions that address concerns: unclear definition and biased selection of relevant stakeholder groups, short legacy timeframes, and the low-level evidence for cause-effect relationships in the legacy production process.
• Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park: an assessment of the 2012 London Games Legacies, Simona Azzali, City, Territory and Architecture, Volume 4, article 11, (July 2017). The London 2012 Olympics were the first Games with a legacy plan already in execution well before the beginning of the event. This study aims at evaluating the legacies of this Olympic edition, with particular regard to the new public open spaces created and their sustainability. The research carries out a post-occupancy evaluation of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, which is the main output of the 2012 Summer Olympics. Results show good achievements in terms of physical and social integration while the economic impact appears to be the weakest legacy from hosting the Games.
• State strategies for leveraging sports mega-events: unpacking the concept of ‘legacy’, Jonathan Grix, Paul Michael Brannagan, Hannah Wood, et.al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 9(2), pp.203-218, (May 2017). This article begins by problematising the notion of SME ‘legacies’ and the benefits they are intended to bring to hosts. The article serves as a general introduction to the papers that follow in this Special Issue. Common to all papers is a concern with the multifaceted nature of ‘legacy’, its meaning to a variety of stakeholders involved in such events and how this impacts policy. The belief in the causal relationship between hosting major events and the realisation of specific legacies – increased sport participation in London’s case, highlighted in this paper – underpinned the United Kingdom’s bidding for, and subsequent hosting of, the Olympics. Thus, this paper serves as a discussion of some of the key concepts in, and assumptions about, the use of SMEs to produce a legacy for the hosting state.
• How to Bid Better for the Olympics: A Participatory Mega-Event Planning Strategy for Local Legacies, Eva Kassens-Noor, John Lauermann, Journal of the American Planning Association, Volume 83(4), pp.335-345, (2017). Cities considering mega-event bids should encourage a fully participatory planning process that provides genuine local legacies and is transparent about costs and who will bear overruns. City planners would contribute significantly to bid planning that meets these objectives. Cities should also pressure Olympic organizations to make supportive changes in their selection requirements.
• “Lead Up and Legacy” A case study of the 2015 Rugby World Cup, Gareth Jones, Mike Edwards, Nick Passenger, Chapter 12 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). The quadrennial Rugby World Cup (RWC) is an integral part of increasing rugby participation worldwide. In order to leverage the RWC to create a desired participation legacy, strategies must be strategically integrated into the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of the event. From this perspective, The Lead Up and Legacy Strategy of the 2015 RWC provides one of the most well-developed leveraging plans to date. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the plan, which focused on two primary areas: (1) building capacity and (2) increasing participation. The legacy impact within these two areas is briefly reviewed, and the discussion integrates these results within the broader literature on leveraging and legacy.
• Trading legacy for leverage, Laurence Chalip, Chapter 2 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). Popular and academic discourse about event legacies emerged as a response to the failed claim that events are good investments for host destinations. By requiring organizers to plan for legacies, event owners could counter such claims, thereby rationalizing their demand on public resources and sentiment. However, the legacy framework fails to withstand conceptual or empirical scrutiny. On the other hand, it has been shown that strategic planning to combine an event into the mix of products and services at the host destination can enable leveraging tactics to foster targeted economic and/or social benefits. Empirically supported models for formulating leverage are available. Their loci of action and policy differentiate them from models of legacy, and make them preferable.
• Paralympic Legacy - Learning from the Sydney 2000 to prepare for Tokyo 2020, Simon Darcy, Journal of the Nippon Foundation Paralympic Research (2016). There are four suggested learnings from Sydney 2000 that may prepare Tokyo 2020 Paralympic games to more strategically address legacy. They are: fostering a relationship with the disability community; developing a Research agenda; educating the population about Paralympic sport; and preparing a culturally appropriate campaign to recruit volunteers.
• Leveraging sport mega-events: new model or convenient justification? Andrew Smith, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, Volume 6(1), pp.15-30, (2014). A range of recent studies have shown that the social and economic impacts of mega-events are often disappointing. This has stimulated interest in the notion of leveraging; an approach which views mega-events as a resource which can be levered to achieve outcomes which would not have happened automatically by staging an event. This paper aims to advance understanding about leveraging – by exploring the rationale for this approach and by identifying different types of leveraging and their relative merits. The work critically explores whether mega-event leveraging represents a new approach or whether it simply provides a convenient justification for expensive and controversial mega-event projects. The paper aims to enhance conceptual understanding, rather than to explore a specific case empirically; but a series of examples are used for illustrative purposes. These are drawn from projects adopted in association with the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games.
• Beyond Olympic Legacy: Understanding Paralympic Legacy Through a Thematic Analysis. Laura Misener et.al., Journal of Sport Management, 27(4), pp. 329-341, (July 2013). This paper seeks to add to the body of knowledge surrounding major sport event legacies by examining the largely overlooked area of the Paralympic Games by conducting a thematic analysis of Paralympic legacy research. A limited body of research was found, mainly focused on the Summer rather than Winter Paralympic Games.
• Considering legacy as a multi-dimensional construct: The legacy of the Olympic Games, Nola Agha, Sheranne Fairley, Healther Gibson, Sport Management Review, Volume 15(1), pp.125-139, (February 2012). This case follows a sport professional tasked with developing an Olympic bid for their city. Specifically, the case considers various legacy outcomes including: destination image, tourism, cost, venues, housing, and social legacies. The case is written with anonymity of the actual city so that the instructor can adapt the case to a specific city. The case is particularly useful for courses covering sport tourism, stakeholder management, event management, or sport economics and finance.
• Olympic Games Legacy: From General Benefits to Sustainable Long-Term Legacy, Becca Leopkey, Milena Parent, International Journal of the History of Sport, Volume 29(6), pp.924-943, (April 2012). This article maps the evolution of the legacy concept over time using bid and final report documentation from Olympic Games host and candidate cities. Examples of modern trends include numerous new legacy themes (e.g. environmental, information, educational); changes in the types of legacy being emphasised (e.g. closer links to city and regional planning initiatives and legacy sustainability), its increasing complexity and interconnectedness found within the typology of legacies, and legacy's overall governance including major influencers and decision makers.

• Learning Legacy, (accessed 30 September 2021). Through this project, London 2012 shared the knowledge and the lessons learned from the construction of the Olympic Park and preparing and staging the Olympic Games.
• Embracing 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games The Legacy Program [website], Queensland Government, City of Gold Coast, Gold Coast 2018, (archived by the National Library Australia, January 2019). On our journey towards 2018, there will be opportunities for Queenslanders to be involved in the Commonwealth Games through a broad range of legacy initiatives. While some will compete in GC2018 at the highest level, others will give their time and effort to make the event happen. Some people will be motivated to take up a sport themselves, others will get involved in organising sports for their community. We can all contribute directly or indirectly to building positive and lasting benefits from hosting GC2018.

• Delivering a Bold Legacy for Birmingham, Birmingham City Council, (December 2021). The council’s legacy plan for the event – with the stated aim of being “A legacy shaped by our people”. It details how the Games can help respond to the main challenges the city already faces, which in itself was a key driver for the council spearheading the successful bid for the right to host the Games back in 2017. To be bold for Birmingham we will:
  • Boost investment in Birmingham, creating thousands of jobs and become a world-leader in hosting international events
  • Engage every child and young person in the Games, including all 400+ schools in the city
  • Build programmes and community projects to kickstart an accessible fitness and wellbeing boom
  • Open our city to the world and connect our communities for and after the Games
  • Launch an era of green growth through high-quality sports facilities, thousands of new sustainable homes and green transport links to become a carbon neutral city by 2030
  • Deliver our promise to the city and become a leading local authority with bold ambitions
• ASPA vision for Olympic legacy, Australasian Society for Physical Activity (ASPA), (August 2021). Australia will host its third summer Olympic games. Congratulations to Brisbane. The 2032 Olympics has been pitched as a sustainable and cost-effective event that will leave a growing legacy for Queensland, and Australia. However, Olympic legacy is the result of a vision and action. Olympic legacy includes all the tangible and intangible long-term benefits associated with hosting the games, before during and after the event. The Australasian Society for Physical Activity (ASPA) calls on Australia to be bold and articulate such a vision now. A vision that connects all Australians with the remarkable power of the games. To choose movement for life – The Aussie Movement.
• Legacy Programmes, Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games, (2021). Our Legacy Programmes comprise 10 different areas of activity: Business and tourism; Physical activity and wellbeing; Creative and cultural participation; Jobs and skills; Community cohesion, inclusion and pride; Sustainability; Social value; Volunteering; Learning programme; and, Venues and infrastructure.
• Action and Legacy Plan, Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee, (July 2016). To promote actions that will result in positive and long lasting legacies, the Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee is working closely with various stakeholders to promote a range of comprehensive actions from the initials stages of planning in the five following pillars: Sport and Health; Urban Planning and Sustainability; Culture and Education; Economy and Technology; Recovery, Nationwide Benefits, and Global Communication.
• Embracing Our Games Legacy - Queensland's legacy for the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games, State of Queensland, (2013). The Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth GamesTM (GC2018) is more than a spectacular sporting event to us. These Commonwealth Games bring tangible and intangible benefits to the Gold Coast and all of Queensland that go well beyond the staging of the event. This strategy provides us with a well-structured and coordinated framework to make sure we take advantage of the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity presented by hosting GC2018. Embracing our Games legacy gives the people of Queensland the chance to take ownership of this opportunity.

• Event Legacy: Maximising the benefits of hosting a major sporting event, Sport Talks, Sydney Olympic Park, NSW (17 June 2015). This seminar explored how organisers planned for community legacy, what they achieved, what they learnt and showcased successful fan engagement strategies.

• Evaluating the social impacts of events: in search of unified indicators for effective policymaking, Martin Wallstam, Dimitri Ioannides, Robert Pettersson, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, Volume 12(2), pp.122-141, (2020). Policymakers in destinations regularly struggle to identify effective ways to evaluate the impacts of planned events. Especially problematic is the relative lack of knowledge about the social impacts that planned events incur. This challenge is largely attributable to the historic focus on economic impacts. However, this trend is shifting along with the realization that events often fail to deliver on promised economic trickle-down effects. This paper addresses the absence of a unified view on social impacts, and how this impedes destinations that aspire to work strategically with planned events. Policymakers at the destination level currently lack the common language needed to effectively measure these impacts. We use a Delphi approach to pinpoint social impact indicators that are of use in policy settings. The results show six indicators that meet the study criteria, thereby contributing towards a unified set of indicators for dealing with strategic event management at the destination level.
• Evaluating event economic impact: rigour versus reality?, Davies, L., Coleman, R. and Ramchandani, G., International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 4(1), pp.31-42, (2013). The paper considers the methods used to evaluate events in the context of balancing academic rigour with the everyday practical realities and constraints facing event organisers and researchers. It discusses existing and emerging methodological considerations and techniques for dealing with these. The paper will be of particular interest to researchers and practitioners from the event industry carrying out or commissioning economic impact studies.

• Event impact standards, International Association of Event Hosts (IAEH), (accessed 2 November 2021). IAEH has worked with experienced event hosts, event owners and industry experts to provide the following guidance, and standard definitions, for measuring the impact of events and contributing to global sustainable development goals. IAEH members have made this guidance openly available and recommend that all research assessing impacts of major events aligns with it, whether for rights-owners, city or national governments, sports or arts organisations, tourism organisations, commercial sponsors, venues or charities. The guidance also aligns with the OECD Recommendation on Global Events and Local Development, adopted at the Ministerial Council Meeting on 30 May 2018 by all 38 OECD member countries. The Recommendation sets out internationally agreed framework conditions for realising sustainable global events.
• Common indicators for measuring the impact of events (1st edition), Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF), (October 2021). Overseen by ASOIF’s Commercial Advisory Group (CAG), the report consolidates relevant and easily available data in a clear way to ensure consistency of data gathering and reporting between events, with the intent of helping the industry deliver, and demonstrate, true value to investors and policy makers. It provides event professionals with a practical tool throughout the lifecycle of events, including a defined set of 30 “input”, 50 “output” and 10 “outcome” Key Performance Indicators from which rights owners and partners can gather data relevant to their own event objectives.

• Beijing 2022 to bring greater accessibility for persons with disabilities, Beijing 2022/paralympic.org, (25 November 2021). With 100 days to go, the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Winter Games are already delivering tangible legacies for persons with disabilities by improving accessibility in Beijing and Zhangjiakou, two of the zones that will be hosting sport next March. The CPC Beijing Municipal Committee and the People's Government of Beijing Municipality have made thousands of practical and legal changes to improve long-term accessibility for persons with disabilities in urban Beijing.
• LA28 launches PlayLA youth sports programme, International Olympic Committee, (9 November 2021). The initiative is made possible by the LA28 Olympic and Paralympic Games Organising Committee and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which are investing USD 160 million to make sport more accessible to kids across Los Angeles ahead of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2028. This initiative is the single largest commitment to youth sports development in California. For more information visit LAParks.org/PlayLA.
• Invictus Australia launches to continue the legacy of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Invictus Australia, (28 October 2021). Australia has achieved a world first with the launch today of Invictus Australia. Invictus Australia will be at the forefront of delivering sport recovery programs and services to improve the health and wellbeing of military veterans and their families, using sport as the primary vehicle. Invictus Australia is the legacy of the highly acclaimed Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Today marks the third anniversary of the closing of those Games. Invictus Australia – previously known as Veteran Sport Australia – has signed a world first agreement with the international Invictus Games Foundation to continue to use the Invictus brand in Australia, with the primary aim of extending support and the power of the Invictus movement beyond the Games. Through collaboration with sport, community and veteran organisations, Invictus Australia will deliver more opportunities for veterans and their families to engage in sport from grassroots participation through to international competition.
• Redefining legacy: How Brock University is maximizing impact from the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Julie Stevens and Sydney Millar, SIRCUIT, (19 April 2021). When we think of legacies from major games, often we think of new facilities, increased engagement in sport and physical activity, or heightened feelings of national pride. As a key partner in the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Brock University took an additional approach, leveraging the Games to invest in research, build curricular connections, and enhance community engagement.
• £8.1 million boost for Liverpool economy following Netball World Cup, Sheffield Hallam University, (28 February 2020). The £8.18m boost was generated by the influx of fans (£6.04m), other attendee groups such as the media and event personnel (£1.32m) and the organisers (£0.82m).Overall 6.07 million people in Britain attended, watched or followed the tournament which took place in July 2019. Other findings from the research included:
  • Physical wellbeing – 160,000 British women were inspired by the event to start playing netball or play netball more while 60% of UK spectators surveyed during the event reported feeling inspired to increase their participation in sport or active recreation as a result of attending the event.
  • Mental wellbeing – 68% of UK spectators felt happier than normal when attending the event, and a similar proportion had a sense of doing something worthwhile. In addition, 1.35m GB adults felt happier than normal because of their interaction with the event.
  • Individual development – 51% of all GB adults who interacted with the event (and 64% of UK female spectators) acquired more knowledge about netball while 46% of UK female spectators felt more confident about their ability to take part in sport and active recreation.
  • Social and community development – 41% of Britons, equivalent to 20.72m of the national population, reported feeling proud about England hosting the Netball World Cup. Among fans from Liverpool, 97% agreed that they felt proud that Liverpool hosted the tournament.
• Play for all: Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Nicola Alcorn, Deloitte, (8 February 2019). Invictus Games Sydney 2018 welcomed 491 competitors and over 1000 of their family and friends from 18 participating nations for 8 days of competition. The celebration of strength and recovery inspired many, and amassed 1000 avid volunteers for the event. The events were held in Sydney Harbour and at Sydney Olympic Park, enabling community participation and driving community spirit through play.
  • It is estimated that competitors, family and friends, volunteers, and the general public spent approximately $5.4 million during their stay in NSW and 94% of this expenditure was in Sydney. The total organising, planning and tourism contribution of the Games is estimated at $29.7 million in value added and supported 211 FTE employees in the NSW economy.
  • In the five major Australian capital cities alone, around four million people viewed the ABC coverage between 20–27 October while 105,000 attended the Games in person.
• Invictus Australia FAQ: what were the outcomes of Invictus Games Sydney 2018? Invictus Australia, (accessed 1 November 2021). The Games were attended by over 1,000 family and friends of competitors, were supported by over 1200 volunteers, attracted 105,000 spectators and reached 27.5 million people across the globe. At the time of the announcement research indicated that 61% of Australians were familiar with the Invictus Games. By the time the first competitor arrived in Sydney in October 2018, that figure had risen to 83 per cent as Australians of all ages and cultural backgrounds joined with us to embrace our Defence community, and to be inspired by their resilience and their unconquered spirit. The end of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018 marked a new beginning for our wounded, injured and ill serving and former serving military personnel. We inspired the wider community to respect and embrace those who have served their country and encouraged active and connected lifestyles through programs targeting sport and mental wellbeing. We educated the community to realise the valuable contribution our veterans can make in civilian life. The games won the hearts and minds of the nation with research showing seven of every ten adults now wants to play an active role in supporting our veterans. Research conducted following the games showed that 75 per cent of Australian want to do more to help Australian veterans.
• So much more to the Commonwealth Games than medals, Kate Palmer, CEO, Australian Sports Commission, (5 April 2018). The Australian Sports Commission (ASC) and the AIS invest more than $100 million a year in high performance sport and, justifiably, we must quantify the return on that investment. According to SMI Insights Data, 80 per cent of Australians believe our athlete representatives instil pride and contribute towards the national identity, while 75 per cent think Australians are respected on the international stage.
• The Paralympic Games and the Promotion of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Sir Philip Craven, UN Chronicle, Volume LIII, No. 2, (August 2016). Looks at the impact of hosting the Paralympic Games on the development of disability rights and recognition in China, England, Russia and Rio.
• Paralympic X factor a win with consumers , Australian Paralympic Committee News, (18 February 2013). Research by Woolcott Research after the London Paralympic Games found that 74 per cent of people indicated that they now see the APC’s sponsors in a more positive light, with 57 per cent believing they are more likely to consider buying their product or service, due to their support of the Paralympic movement.

• Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key social benefits and costs identified were:
  • Hosting the Games has catalysed regeneration and transformation of areas across the city and wider region – as seen in the reclamation of a former 146 hectare derelict site in East Manchester. It saw investment in sports, leisure and entertainment facilities, creating many thousands of jobs. House prices improved remarkably between pre and post Games position compared to Manchester and the wider region. £400 million was invested into new homes and communities.
• All-Party Parliamentary Group on Sport Modern Slavery and Human Rights: Interim Report, Institute for Human Rights and Business, (July 2019). The APPG has also taken a particular interest in MSEs, hearing from those companies, trade unions and NGOs involved in events such as the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, Tokyo 2020 and Qatar 2022. The conditions facing migrant workers in construction are a particular concern and the APPG has seen the value of human rights due diligence under frameworks such as the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. The APPG also heard from journalists who cover some of these events as well as a number of media companies about their responsibilities as broadcasters. This report shares some initial findings from the APPG for the UK Government and legislators. These findings are based on the evidence received in the first half of the APPG and are therefore subject to change and review.
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key impact and legacy outcomes relating to inclusion:
  • World-first commitment to delivery legacy outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; first-time gender equality in medal events for men and women; Participation in Australia's first bench-marking program designed to measure inclusion of LGBTI people in sport; accessible venues for people with accessiblity requirements; largest para-sport program in Commowealth Games history - 38 medal events and 300 para-athletes; human rights policy, demonstrating commitment to the UN Guiding Principles; family friendly ticket prices from AU$10 and four free events.
• Invictus Games Sydney 2018 - Game On Down Under Event Review, Australian International Military Games Limited, (2018). This report is a snapshot of the highlights of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Some key numbers included: 491 competitors from 18 nations; 1263 volunteers; 105,000 spectators; 10,000+ primary and secondary students attended; 16 assistance dogs. One of the key objectives for Invictus Games Sydney 2018 was to focus attention on the needs of our veterans as they transition to civilian life. Some key outcomes included:
  • RSL NSW, in conjunction with ClubsNSW and the Australian Defence Force (ADF), launching Veteran Sport Australia (VSA). The core principle of VSA is the health and wellbeing of our veterans. This program will encourage them to use the healing power of sport to engage with their community, whether at grassroots level or internationally.
  • The Invictus Games Sydney 2018 Education Project, developed and delivered nationally through the NSW Department of Education, provides a valuable educational opportunity centred on inclusivity, mental health, physical health, the unconquered human spirit and resilience. The resources will be available in schools for years to come.
  • The Invictus Games Sydney 2018 Outreach program was hosted during the Games and featured a wide array of informative and challenging discussions in the areas of employment, volunteering and health. During the program, we secured from a range of organisations, their commitment to work with veterans on education and training options and to support employment opportunities.
  • Between February 2018 and the Opening Ceremony in October, more than 2,200 community events were held. The Community Engagement team presented on average 12 times a week to community organisations.
  • Research polls in December 2016 soon after the announcement that Sydney would host the Games; also in June 2018 and November 2018.
    • 7 out of 10 Australians want to do their part to support wounded, injured and ill veterans.
    • 93% of our volunteers and 90% of our subscribers say that based on their engagement with the Invictus Games the competitors are people they would like to work with.
    • A extremely high proportion of both groups (94% volunteers and 91% subscribers) are also now more likely to support initiatives that assist the recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration of servicemen and women than they were before the Invictus Games.
• The Mega-Sporting Event Lifecycle: Embedding Human Rights from Vision to Legacy, Mega-Sporting Events Platform for Human Rights, (April 2018). Mega-sporting events (MSE) are the pinnacle of global sport, but cannot stand apart from their very significant social impacts – both positive and negative. Sporting events can enhance freedoms and celebrate human dignity, but can also amplify discrimination and abuse. It is critical to ensure that the world of sport is in full alignment with the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UN Guiding Principles) and other international human rights and related instruments, principles, and standards. This guide presents the lifecycle of a mega-sporting event, with specific elements of good practice at each stage that those involved in hosting the event should integrate into their planning, delivery and legacy in order to ensure a rights-compliant event.
• The value of sport and active recreation to New Zealanders, Angus & Associates for Sport NZ, (May 2017). This research was designed to update and add to the sector’s understanding of the value that accrues from sport and active recreation and to consider how this value accrues differently to individuals, families, organisations, communities and the country as a whole. It was also designed to consider the many ways in which sport and recreation are said to deliver economic, social and cultural benefit: disaggregating the impacts of High Performance and Community sport where possible, while also helping to clarify the relationship between the two (for example, how achievements at a high performance level motivate participation in community sport, and how community sport creates a pathway to high performance sport). The report highlighted the role high performance sport can have in building and maintaining national identity and pride. Survey results reported that 86% of respondents believe that high performance sport instills both a sense of pride in their country, and contributes to the national identity. Additionally, the report indicates that 70% agreed that 'high performance sport brings communities together'.
• Community Perceptions Survey 2017: Research Report, Essence Communications, [restricted access] (2017). In 2017, as part of the development of the National Sports Plan, the Australian Sports Commission commissioned Essence Communications to conduct a national survey. Through a nationally representative sample (n=3,541) the research sought to establish current perceptions of and the importance of goals for high performance sport, sport participation, cultural, and public health outcomes; expectations of opportunity and success; and current participation in physical activity and sport. Results were reported for key groups (such as gender; age segments; cultural background (CALD, LOTE, ATSI, recent migrants <5 years); income segments; and parents). A market segmentation analysis, based on behaviour and attitudes to physical activity and sport, was also used. The segmentation identified 5 key groups in the population, Club active fans (17%); Non–club active fans (21%), Sidelined advocates (10%), Active ambivalent (31%), and Inactive ambivalent (22%). The two sport ambivalent segments made up about 53% of the population. Some key findings in regards to high performance sport included:
  • Reputation and identity — Australians generally believed that sport contributes to our national identity (78%), with a similar percentage saying it is important that Australia is respected on the international sporting stage (78%). A clear majority also believed that high performance sport gives Australia positive international exposure (77%). While representation in international sport instils pride (78%) it is also seen as very important that Australian athletes perform well (74%), with nearly half (45%) expecting Australia to be in the top 10 ten and over half (55%) expecting Australia to be in the top 20.
  • Major events — Australian's also believed that it is important for the Government to invest in attracting, securing, and hosting international sporting events (72%). While about 25% believed that these events can inspire Australians to participate in more sport, they are primarily seen as important for Australia's national and international reputation, as well as having community and economic benefits. These benefits include: national pride and identity (34%), putting Australia on the map (25%), attracting tourism to Australia (51%), and promoting Australia generally (44%). Economic benefits are seen as coming from attendance (32%), while promoting community engagement/involvement (including workforce, volunteers, participants, spectators, and supporters) was important to around 26%. Providing facilities to train and compete at and promoting sport were seen as having less impact (23% and 20%) but still relevant.
  • Community participation and engagement — in general, the majority of Australians believed that high performance sport benefits Australia. This included encouraging participation in sport itself (69%) and bringing communities together (69%). Additionally, most believed that the facilities/infrastructure for high performance sports/events provide opportunities for everyday Australians (64%). While these views were strongly held by pro–sport segments, agreement remained above 50% even for the ambivalent segments.
  • Investment and economic impact — the role of the government in supporting and investing in both community and high performance sport was seen as important by the majority of Australians, whether engaged or not engaged with sport. While this view is less likely in sport ambivalent segments it remained above 50% in all areas tested. Government investment in developing high performance athletes and sport was seen as important by 69% of respondents. And 66% believe that high performance sport makes a valuable contribution to Australia’s economy.
• Evaluating the volunteering infrastructure legacy of the Olympic Games: Sydney 2000 and London 2012, Leonie Lockstone-Binney William, Kirsten Holmes, Richard Shipway, et.al., International Olympic Committee Advanced Research Grant Program 2015/16, (June 2016). Two research phases were conducted. Stage 1 involved a comprehensive review of secondary data on the Sydney and London Olympic and Paralympic Games, and Stage 2 involved 27 interviews with key informants in each host city. The findings reveal limitations with legacy planning for each OCOG. While SOCOG had no specific remit for legacy planning, the voluntary sector led legacy efforts in Australia. In London there was Government-led legacy planning but the failure to engage with the voluntary sector hampered implementation. Recommendations are provided for host cities and the IOC to enable future Olympic Games host cities and countries to leverage from the Games volunteer programmes to generate wider benefits for their communities.
• Paralympic data from the ONS Opinions and Lifestyle Survey. UK Department for Work and Pensions and Office for Disability Issues (July 2014). The data in this publication is taken from the ONS Opinions and Lifestyle Survey, which includes questions about attitudes towards disabled people before and after the 2012 Paralympics.
• Inspired by 2012: The legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, A joint UK Government and Mayor of London report, London, Cabinet Office (2013). Chapter Six of the report focuses on legacies from 2012 London Paralympics. These included: 81% of people surveyed thought that the Games had a positive effect on how disabled people are viewed by the British public, increase in disabled people’s participation in sport, and improved accessibility in transport. For instance, London's 22,000 black cabs can now accommodate wheelchairs and all 8,500 London buses are now wheelchair accessible and over 70% of bus stops are fully accessible.
• YouGov Nationwide Paralympic Legacy Survey, YouGov, (12 August 2013). YouGov poll surveyed 2,606 adults across the UK after the London Paralympics. It found that 67 per cent of people believed that the profile and awareness of disability has been raised generally and 64 per cent said that disabled people are better recognised as being able to lead normal lives and achieve at work.
• London 2012 : a legacy for disabled people - setting new standards, changing perceptions, UK Office for Disability Issues, (2010). The London Olympic and Paralympic Games plan to change three major areas: influence the attitudes and perceptions of people regarding disabled people, increase the participation of disabled people in sport and physical activity and promote and drive improvements in business, transport and employment opportunities for disabled people.

• Sport legacy impact on ethnic minority groups: the case of London 2012, Themis Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-López, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.730-747, (2022). The sport legacy among ethnic minorities has been neglected despite the positive outcomes of active lifestyle and social inclusion. The current research, applying time series analysis, evaluates evidence of sport legacy among four English ethnic minorities regarding the hosting of Olympic Games (London 2012). A short-term association was found between hosting the Games and sport participation rates among ethnic groups, leading more to increasing frequency of engagement for existing participants than to attracting new participants. The results indicate differences among the ethnic groups and gender, showing that females from Asian ethnicities having the highest engagement. Practical implications for the governance of events in the future relate to improving the festival effect of the Games, to encourage social inclusion for ethnic minorities. Our results might encourage policy makers to maintain a sustained effort in the post-event period to capitalise on sport legacy.
• Residents’ perceptions of sporting events: a review of the literature, Balázs Polcsik, Szilvia Perényi, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.748-767, (2022). Increasing attention has been devoted of late to perceptions of sporting events among host city residents. However, a comprehensive literature review that collects and summarizes the content of research in this area lacks scholarly approaches. This study aims to review the literature published between 2000 and 2020 in indexed, peer-reviewed periodicals on perceptions among host city residents. It also analyses the selected 43 papers in the sample with reference to theoretical approaches, methods and findings. It seems that understanding perceived potential social impacts of sporting events in a particular city is essential to the overall success of these events among local communities. Findings from the wide spectrum of studies reviewed can be used in event planning, communication strategies, implementation and reduction of negative impacts, while capitalizing on opportunities. Highlighting key topics and trends in the literature, this analysis also identifies both limitations and possible new research approaches.
• National pride, sporting success and event hosting: an analysis of intangible effects related to major athletic tournaments, Rasmus K. Storm, Tor Georg Jakobsen, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(1), pp.163-178, (2020). Contemporary research into the impact of major sports events shows that the widely used (and popular) claim of economic benefits associated with hosting them is misleading or – at best – overrated. In this paper, we aim to measure whether other potential intangible effects can be found, specifically that of national pride. We expand on existing research by including more international sports events and nations while also including a medal index into our regression models to test the effect of athletic achievement. Our results suggest that international sporting success is not a significant driver of national pride. Hosting mega sports events is positively correlated with pride, although this is not significant in our estimations. Implications for nations are that they should become much more strategic in order to harvest potential intangible effects.
• The Perceived Influence of Sport Event Spectatorship on Subjective Wellbeing, Girish Ramchandani, Richard Coleman, Robbie Millar, Journal of Global Sport Management, (September 2019). The purpose of this paper is to examine the perceived influence of major sports events on the subjective wellbeing of spectators. The research covered three sporting events featuring racket sports held in the UK between 2017 and 2018 and was concerned with spectators (aged 16 and over) who attended one of these events. Four aspects of subjective wellbeing were considered: life satisfaction, happiness, feeling worthwhile, and anxiety. A composite subjective wellbeing measure encompassing these aspects was also developed. Primary data were collected from spectators at each event and an overall spectator sample of 362 was achieved. Respondents perceived that their subjective wellbeing was enhanced significantly as a consequence of attending major sports events across all measures. We also found that frequency of event attendance and being inspired by events to be more physically active were positively and significantly associated with perceived improvements in subjective wellbeing attributed to attending events. Our study indicates that there are two potential mechanisms through which improvements in subjective wellbeing from attending major sports events are manifested. First, a direct effect of being at an event on subjective wellbeing. Second, an indirect effect of event attendance on subjective wellbeing that stems from a feeling of inspiration.
• Legacy of sporting mega events for people with disabilities: The Paralympic Games, ByIan Brittain, Chapter 6 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). There is very little published work that has investigated event legacies in terms of the Paralympic Games (Misener et al., 2013). This is despite the fact that, in many ways, the Paralympic Games, and their forerunners the Stoke Mandeville Games, were founded with the aim of providing a positive legacy for people with disabilities Through the lens of ableism this chapter highlights some of the legacy claims made for previous Paralympic Games before looking in more detail at the London 2012 and Rio 2016 summer Paralympic Games. Overall the chapter highlights that the Paralympic Games does have agency in the sense that it provides a platform from which to engage in debate about disability issues, but that political, economic, and cultural specificities within a host country can all work either for or against the legacy process in many complicated and often unexpected ways.
• Leveraging the London 2012 Paralympic Games: What Legacy for Disabled People? Ian Brittain, Aaron Beacom, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 40(6), pp.499-521, (2016). The International Paralympic Committee, U.K. Government, and the Organizing Committee for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games have all claimed partial success in delivery a positive legacy during the course of the 4-year period (Olympiad) separating the London and Rio Paralympic Games. However, this is at odds with the findings of Disabled People’s Organizations (DPOs) and the experiences of disabled individuals. This article considers the claims of both sides.
• Public Attitudes Toward People With Intellectual Disabilities After Viewing Olympic or Paralympic Performance. Ferrara, K Burns, J Mills, H, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 32(1), pp.19-33, (2015). A 2012 Paralympic Games goal was to influence the public’s attitudes toward people with disabilities. Study's findings provide evidence that both Paralympic (ID) and Olympic media coverage may have at least a short-term effect on attitudes toward people with disabilities, particularly people with an intellectual disability.
• Does national pride from international sporting success contribute to well-being? An international investigation, Tim Pawlowski, Paul Downward, Simona Rasciute, Sport Management Review, Volume 17(2), pp.121-132, (May 2014). This paper addresses the hypothesis that investment in international sporting success creates pride from success, which contributes to subjective well-being. The findings do not support the hypothesis that pride following from sporting success can contribute distinctly to SWB. Moreover, the hosting of events may be more important than success at them, a point suggested by the positive association between attendance at sporting events and SWB.
• 'A mockery of equality': An exploratory investigation into disabled activists' views of the Paralympic Games. Stuart Braye, Kevin Dixon, Tom Gibbons, Disability and Society, Volume 28(7), pp.984-996, (October 2013). This article offers an exploratory analysis of the opinions of disabled activists towards the Paralympic Games through the use of a qualitative online survey of disabled individuals (n = 32) who are not Paralympic athletes but are affiliated to the disability rights group, the United Kingdom Disabled People’s Council. The results illustrate a nuanced yet negative view of the Games to contrast with an existing, yet overly positive, academic narrative.
• Happiness, pride and elite sporting success: What population segments gain most from national athletic achievements? Kirstin Hallmann, Christoph Breuer, and Benedikt Kühnreich, Sport Management Review, Volume 16(2), pp.226-235, (May 2013). The aim of this paper is to analyse what factors influence perceived national pride and happiness when athletes succeed at major national and/or international competitions. Based on a nation-wide survey, data was collected from n = 2006 randomly selected Germans by means of a computer assisted telephone interview. The results reveal that 66.2% respondents felt proud and 65.6% respondents were happy when German athletes were successful at major events. Women, individuals with a low educational background, and low income and individuals having a migration background are the population segments who gain most from the sporting success of elite athletes. The results show in particular that the funding of elite sports and elite athletes can be considered as policy tool for social integration.
• The trickle-down effect: what population groups benefit from hosting major sports events? Pamela Wicker, Popi Sotiriadou, International Journal of Event Management Research, Volume 8(2), (2013). This study analyses whether some population groups benefit from hosting a major sport event like the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games more than others. Results show that younger people, less educated people, and people of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin are more likely to spend more time participating in sport as a result of Melbourne hosting the Commonwealth Games. Younger people with no formal education and people who are not in a relationship are more likely to take up a new activity. Older people, females, and the locals are more likely to gain a positive attitude. The results inform policy makers and sport event managers who plan for the 2018 Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast, Australia.
• The inspirational effects of three major sport events, Girish M. Ramchandani, Richard J. Coleman, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 3(3), pp.257-271, (2012). This article investigated whether attending one-of sports events might inspire audiences to increase participation in sport or physical activitiy. Based on data collected from spectators at 3 major UK events the authors found that around two-thirds of respondents reported that they had been inspired to increase their participation. The authors comment that it is reasonable that in order for 'trickle-down' effect to occur it is reasonable to assume that people must first be 'inspired' by event experiences, however, the provision of information about opportunities to undertake sport was also found to be the most important way to convert inspiration into participation.
• The Paralympic Movement: using sports to promote health, disability rights, and social integration for athletes with disabilities. Blauwet C, Willick SE, PM and R: The Journal Of Injury, Function, And Rehabilitation, Volume 4(11), pp.851-856, (2012). Paralympic Games has greatly assisted in the promotion of health, disability rights, and social integration through sports. It has expanded opportunities available to athletes with disabilities.
• Correlates of pride in the performance success of United States athletes competing on an international stage, Bryan Denham, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Volume 45(4), (2010). This research examines how demographic and media-use measures associate with national pride, as experienced through the success of US athletes competing internationally. The results indicated greater levels of national pride among black males, older respondents, those who classified themselves as republicans, and those with lower levels of formal education. Exposure to newspapers and television did not generally prove statistically significant, although those exposed most frequently to television tended to agree in significantly higher numbers with the statement ‘When my country does well in international sports, it makes me proud to be an American.’

• Sustainability policy, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (September 2017). There are many definitions of sustainability, but perhaps the most widely recognised is that given in the Brundtland Report1 - “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Based on this principle, GOLDOC is committed to addressing sustainability criteria in all of its GC2018 activities, to achieve positive economic, social and environmental outcomes. We are committed to the following governing principles of sustainable development: Inclusivity – To ensure that all interested parties are able to participate without fear of discrimination; Integrity – To conduct GC2018 in an ethical manner, consistent with international standards of behaviour; Stewardship – To take responsibility for the economic, environmental and social outcomes to be shared by all; Transparency – To communicate willingly and openly about the decisions and activities that affect the social, environmental and economic outcomes of our actions; Leadership – To demonstrate leadership by delivering GC2018 to international standards, constantly improving our ways of working and meeting all legal and other requirements. Related documents include:
  • Sustainability [website], Gold Coast 2018, (accessed 22 October 2021). As a transformational event, GC2018 presents a unique opportunity to demonstrate leadership in sustainability by delivering to international standards of best practice, leaving positive economic, environmental, social and community legacies that last beyond the Closing Ceremony.
  • Approach to Human Rights, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (August 2018). A key purpose of this document is to demonstrate GOLDOC’s commitment and approach to human rights in the planning and delivery of GC2018.
  • The Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Reconciliation Action Plan, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (November 2017). Our vision is to deliver a great Games that will recognise, respect and celebrate Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. GC2018 will leave a lasting and meaningful legacy through: employment and training; procurement; showcasing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander arts and cultures; building a culturally capable workforce and providing authentic Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural experiences for GC2018 and beyond.
  • Towards a Sustainable GC2018, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (September 2017). This sustainability framework “Towards a sustainable GC2018” was first published in 2014. Since that time, the organisation has undergone significant growth and evolution. Therefore, to ensure that GOLDOC’s approach to sustainability continues to evolve and in accordance with GOLDOC’s commitment to continual improvement, this document has been reviewed with minor updates incorporated.
• Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games Sustainability Plan, Tokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games, (2016). The Tokyo 2020 Games set five main sustainability themes, which Tokyo 2020, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, the Government of Japan and other delivery partners work on in preparations for and operations of the Games. In addition, Tokyo 2020 formulated the Tokyo 2020 Sustainable Sourcing Code as a tool to ensure sustainability throughout the supply chains of products and services Tokyo 2020 procures as well as licensed products.
• Human Rights, Labour and Fair Business Practices - We will operate the Games in accordance with the UN’s Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.
• Involvement, Cooperation and Communications (Engagement) - Through the participation and collaboration of entire society, we will create the Games which open to everyone.

• Sydney Olympic Park 2000-2010: history and legacy, Richard Cashman, Walla Walla Press, (July 2011). Sydney Olympic Park 2000 to 2010 is the first extended study of the realisation of post-Games legacy in an Olympic city. It raises many new questions about the nature of legacy and when legacy obligations end. The book is based on 50 interviews and tells the story of both the Park itself and the people involved in its realisation.

• LA28 launches PlayLA youth sports programme, International Olympic Committee, (9 November 2021). The initiative is made possible by the LA28 Olympic and Paralympic Games Organising Committee and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which are investing USD 160 million to make sport more accessible to kids across Los Angeles ahead of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2028. This initiative is the single largest commitment to youth sports development in California. For more information visit LAParks.org/PlayLA.
• Invictus Australia launches to continue the legacy of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Invictus Australia, (28 October 2021). Australia has achieved a world first with the launch today of Invictus Australia. Invictus Australia will be at the forefront of delivering sport recovery programs and services to improve the health and wellbeing of military veterans and their families, using sport as the primary vehicle. Invictus Australia is the legacy of the highly acclaimed Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Today marks the third anniversary of the closing of those Games. Invictus Australia – previously known as Veteran Sport Australia – has signed a world first agreement with the international Invictus Games Foundation to continue to use the Invictus brand in Australia, with the primary aim of extending support and the power of the Invictus movement beyond the Games. Through collaboration with sport, community and veteran organisations, Invictus Australia will deliver more opportunities for veterans and their families to engage in sport from grassroots participation through to international competition.
• In Search of Inspiration: Re-thinking the Potential for Demonstration Effects, Luke Potwarka, University of Waterloo, SIRCuit, (13 July 2020). The question of the “existence” of demonstration effects may be far more nuanced than simply claiming they do or do not exist. It may be time for researchers to temper the debate about the existence of demonstration effects, and instead focus their efforts on investigating the mechanisms and conditions by which sport events are most likely to bring about desired participation impacts. The resulting evidence can help set expectations, assess investments, and guide legacy investments.
• £8.1 million boost for Liverpool economy following Netball World Cup, Sheffield Hallam University, (28 February 2020). The £8.18m boost was generated by the influx of fans (£6.04m), other attendee groups such as the media and event personnel (£1.32m) and the organisers (£0.82m).Overall 6.07 million people in Britain attended, watched or followed the tournament which took place in July 2019. Other findings from the research included:
  • Physical wellbeing – 160,000 British women were inspired by the event to start playing netball or play netball more while 60% of UK spectators surveyed during the event reported feeling inspired to increase their participation in sport or active recreation as a result of attending the event.
  • Individual development – 51% of all GB adults who interacted with the event (and 64% of UK female spectators) acquired more knowledge about netball while 46% of UK female spectators felt more confident about their ability to take part in sport and active recreation.
• Superhip to supercrip: the ‘trickle-down’ effect of the Paralympics, Gregor Wolbring, Brian Litke, The Conversation (August 2012). Author argues that despite the increasing success of the Paralympic Games there is no evidence of an automatic 'trickle-down' effect and that more has to be done to address the barriers to participation and ensure this popularity leads to real changes for the average person with a disability.

• Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key sport participation benefits identified were:
  • Hosting the Games has led to increased sports participation in the host city region from 10% of Victorians taking up sports as a result of Melbourne 2006, and a 5% increase in sports participation in Queensland following Gold Coast 2018.
• Invictus Games Sydney 2018 - Game On Down Under Event Review, Australian International Military Games Limited, (2018). This report is a snapshot of the highlights of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Some key numbers included: 491 competitors from 18 nations; 1263 volunteers; 105,000 spectators; 10,000+ primary and secondary students attended; 16 assistance dogs. Some key outcomes included:
  • RSL NSW, in conjunction with ClubsNSW and the Australian Defence Force (ADF), launching Veteran Sport Australia (VSA). The core principle of VSA is the health and wellbeing of our veterans. This program will encourage them to use the healing power of sport to engage with their community, whether at grassroots level or internationally.
  • Research polls in December 2016 soon after the announcement that Sydney would host the Games; also in June 2018 and November 2018.
    • 9 out of 10 Australians fully support any program that will help veterans overcome physical injuries and mental health challenges and agree the Invictus Games can make a significant difference in the lives of veterans with physical injuries and mental health challenges.
    • Six in ten respondents (volunteers or subscribers) plan to increase their involvement in sport and fitness activities as result of their Invictus Games experience.
• Evaluating the volunteering infrastructure legacy of the Olympic Games: Sydney 2000 and London 2012, Leonie Lockstone-Binney William, Kirsten Holmes, Richard Shipway, et.al., International Olympic Committee Advanced Research Grant Program 2015/16, (June 2016). Two research phases were conducted. Stage 1 involved a comprehensive review of secondary data on the Sydney and London Olympic and Paralympic Games, and Stage 2 involved 27 interviews with key informants in each host city. The findings reveal limitations with legacy planning for each OCOG. While SOCOG had no specific remit for legacy planning, the voluntary sector led legacy efforts in Australia. In London there was Government-led legacy planning but the failure to engage with the voluntary sector hampered implementation. Recommendations are provided for host cities and the IOC to enable future Olympic Games host cities and countries to leverage from the Games volunteer programmes to generate wider benefits for their communities.
• Olympic and Paralympic legacy survey. Sport and Recreation Alliance, (2013). While not specific to the Paralympic Games this report includes questions specifically relating to the impact of the Games on persons with disability participating in sport and the more general public perception of people with a disability. It argues that here has been no Olympic and Paralympic Games to date that has successfully produced a sporting legacy. In October 2012 the Alliance carried out a survey of volunteers and employees of sports clubs right across the country. The results indicate that:
• In 2011, 84% of sports clubs thought that the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games did not represent an opportunity for them (Sport and Recreation Alliance, 2011b).
• Following the Games, our poll has found that two thirds (66%) of clubs do not feel that they have benefited and that the majority of clubs (73%) do not believe the Government has done enough to help community sport create a legacy of participation.
• Lack of funding for sports clubs is preventing 3 in 5 clubs (59%) from growing their membership whilst increased running costs are holding back the growth of almost the same amount again (54%). Similarly, half (51%) can’t grow their membership because of a lack of affordable venues/facilities.
• 2 in 5 clubs (42%) have seen an increase in the number of people joining their club since the Games this year but a quarter (26%) of these clubs are struggling to meet this demand.
• 9 in 10 (89%) clubs have reported no change in the number of disabled people joining their club.
• Three quarters of clubs (78%) have noticed no change in the number of people volunteering following the Games

• Multi-dimensional framework as a new way to study the management of Olympic volunteering, Olesya Nedvetskaya, European Sport Management Quarterly, (24 February 2022). The London 2012 Olympic Games volunteer (Games Maker or GM) programme was the primary case for this research. Data was gathered before, during and 14 months after the Games in the UK via a mixed methods approach. Survey data from volunteers was complemented with semi-structured interviews with volunteers and managers, the author’s participant observations and documentary analysis. The proposed framework helped identify and evaluate the systems, mechanisms, and processes of developing and managing the GM programme. It became evident that unless key event stakeholders acknowledge the complex nature of Olympic volunteering and put adequate structures, resources and practices in place, the volunteer programmes are ineffective in managing volunteers and attaining a sustainable volunteering legacy. This paper offers valuable insights into the organisation and management of Olympic volunteering to achieve various programme results. It answers a call for a holistic approach to the phenomenon under study and features new directions for continued academic research in this critical area.
• Can international sports mega events be considered physical activity interventions? A systematic review and quality assessment of large-scale population studies, Michael Annear, Shintaro Sato, Tetsuhiro Kidokoro, et.al., Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.712-729, (2022). Amidst ongoing debate about the viability of physical activity (PA) legacies associated with hosting international sports mega events, this systematic review explores quantitative evidence from population studies that utilize repeated measures. This review is guided by the PRISMA protocol and includes article quality evaluation techniques from health intervention research. Structured Boolean searches were conducted across six databases and grey literature sources. In total, 12 studies were identified from the last two decades across four event typologies. Among these studies, 9 were evaluated as being of higher quality, but only 4 employed standard definitions or measures of PA. Among the higher quality studies, two-thirds found no evidence for statistically significantly PA legacies, although gaps and limitations precluded definitive assessment. Common concerns include limited evaluation of covariates, sweeping conclusions based on insufficient evidence, arbitrary conceptualization and operalization of PA, and lack of triangulation. Research recommendations for resolving the impasse are proposed.
• Sport legacy impact on ethnic minority groups: the case of London 2012, Themis Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-López, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.730-747, (2022). The sport legacy among ethnic minorities has been neglected despite the positive outcomes of active lifestyle and social inclusion. The current research, applying time series analysis, evaluates evidence of sport legacy among four English ethnic minorities regarding the hosting of Olympic Games (London 2012). A short-term association was found between hosting the Games and sport participation rates among ethnic groups, leading more to increasing frequency of engagement for existing participants than to attracting new participants. The results indicate differences among the ethnic groups and gender, showing that females from Asian ethnicities having the highest engagement. Practical implications for the governance of events in the future relate to improving the festival effect of the Games, to encourage social inclusion for ethnic minorities. Our results might encourage policy makers to maintain a sustained effort in the post-event period to capitalise on sport legacy.
• An evidence-based assessment of the impact of the Olympic Games on population levels of physical activity, Adrian Bauman, Masamitsu Kamada, Rodrigo Reis, et.al., The Lancet, Volume 398(10298), pp.456-464, (31 July 2021). Pre-Olympic Games predictions commonly include an increase in population-based physical activity in the host city, as often stated in the bid, but the post-Olympic Games effects on physical activity have not been summarised. In this Series paper, we aim to do the following: examine mentions of a physical activity legacy in pre-Olympic bid documentation; analyse existing physical activity surveillance data collected before, during, and after the Olympic Games in hosting areas around the world; and evaluate Google Trends data surrounding the London 2012 Olympic Games as a case study of community interest in the topic of exercise during the time of the Olympic Games. Before 2007, little mention of physical activity was made in pre-Olympic Games documentation, but, after that, most documents had targets for population physical activity or sports participation. The synthesis of available surveillance data indicates that there was no change in the prevalence of physical activity or sports participation, except for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano; although, the increase in participation in Nagano might not be attributable to the Olympic Games since there was no change in participation in winter sports. The Google Trends data showed an acute spike in searches with the term “Olympic” immediately associated with the London Olympic Games period and showed a sustained peri-Olympic increase in searches with the term “exercise”. By themselves, the Olympic Games have not improved population-wide physical activity but might be an important missed public health opportunity. Such a legacy will require strategic planning and partnerships across the International Olympic Committee and the Olympic, sport, and public health agencies and a thorough evaluation framework implemented throughout the pre-Olympic Games and post-Olympic Games period in the host country.
• Reconceptualizing a model of demonstration effects: integrating rational, affective, and behavioral constructs, Jordan T. Bakhsh, Luke Potwarka, Michael Naraine, et.al., European Sport Management Quarterly, (19 May 2021). The purpose of this study was to examine how rational and affective motivational mechanisms influence youths’ intention and participatory behavior after watching an elite sport event. Data were collected from 318 youth post-spectating an elite track cycling event. Post-event questionnaires measured rational and affective motivational antecedents of intention, while the behavior was measured through sport program participation within one year following the event. Structural equation modeling revealed that rational (i.e. attitude toward the behavior, perceived behavioral control, descriptive norm) and affective (i.e. inspiration) motivational mechanisms significantly predicted intention, and intention, was a small but statistically significant predictor of participation. Scholars should consider the integration of both rational (e.g. participation constraints) and affective-based (e.g. inspiration) motivational mechanisms when modeling sport participation behaviors. Practitioners should consider designing event leveraging strategies that expand youth’s social networks (e.g. youth activities during event intermissions) and create experiential conditions which induce a state of inspiration (e.g. having athletes speak to youth after the event).
• Sport Events for Sport Participation: A Scoping Review, Georgia Teare and Marijke Tak, frontiers in Sports and Active Living, (19 May 2021). Research on sport participation impacts from sport events has been sporadic. This scoping review assesses the current state of literature that addresses impacts, legacies, and leveraging of sport events for sport participation outcomes and the gaps in terms of study context and research designs. Two systematic approaches of article identification were performed: a traditional database search and a systematic manual search. Studies on sport participation outcomes from events mainly focused on mega sport events and adult populations, with the majority employing cross-sectional data and quantitative methods. The use theoretical of frameworks is limited and inconsistent. There is a need for longitudinal investigations, as well as more focus on youth populations, participant events, and smaller-sized events to advance the research agenda for sport participation outcomes from sport events.
• Leveraging sporting events to create sport participation: a case study of the 2016 Youth Olympic Games, Svein Erik Nordhagen, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 13(3), (March 2021). The leverage perspective takes a prospective approach to legacy and focuses on how different organisations use an event as a catalyst to implement their own organisational goals. This paper examines how the second winter Youth Olympic Games (YOG) in Lillehammer in 2016 were leveraged to increase participation in organised and non-organised sport among regional youth. The analytical framework is based on available sport participation leverage literature. This is a case study using interviews with representatives from involved organisations, archival materials and observations as its main sources. The findings show that event organisations, sport organisations and non-sport organisations formed alliances to leverage the 2016 YOG for sport participation with intervention programmes and new infrastructure as the two main strategies. The sport participation legacy outcomes of the 2016 YOG were constrained by a lack of long-term strategies and limited resources made available after the Games. To maximise the sport participation goals, strong alliances and long-term commitments need to be formed among local and regional organisations.
• Membership of English sport clubs: A dynamic panel data analysis of the trickle-down effect, Pablo Castellanos-García, Themis Kokolakakis, Simon Shibli, et.al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 13(1), pp.105-122, (2021). Investments in elite sport and major sporting events are often justified in sport policy by various rationales, one of which is a ‘trickle-down’ effect whereby successful athletes have a positive impact on general sport participation rates. This effect is likely to be greater when hosting events, as home advantage can contribute to sporting success. The purpose of this research is to explore the possibility of a trickle-down effect on sports club membership in the United Kingdom in the context of the 2012 London Olympic Games. Secondary data were collected on sports club membership levels in 33 sports, over a ten-year period, from 2007–2016 (n = 330). Sporting success was measured by the number of gold medals won in international competitions, the number of major sport events hosted in the UK, and the results of the BBC’s Sports Personality of the Year award (SPOTY). The outcomes of a dynamic panel regression analysis show a causal relationship between the trickle-down effect and sports club membership over a four-year period.
• Hosting elite sport events to target recreational sport participation: an interrupted time series analysis, Famke J.M. Mölenberg, Frouwkje de Waart, Alex Burdorf, et.al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(4), pp.531-543, (November 2020). This study evaluated the effect of hosting elite sport events on sport participation against the background of a shift in focus towards targeting recreational sport participation. We included 10 international elite sport events organised between 2000 and 2017 in the city of Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Sport-specific participation in the past year was obtained from a biannual cross-sectional survey. Three events concerning cycling, table tennis and gymnastics were followed by an increase in sport-specific participation 1-year after the event was organised, whereas the korfball event was followed by a decrease. The pooled effect of the 10 events did not show any change in sport-specific participation. Significant group differences by period were found. More recent events targeting sport participation were followed by an increase in sport-specific participation, but not for other events. No group differences were found for the number of visitors and location. Hosting elite sport events that explicitly target sport participation may increase sport participation among citizens. Longitudinal data following individuals over time are needed to support this finding.
• The sport participation legacy of major events in the UK, Girish Ramchandani, Richard Coleman, Elizabeth Christy, Health Promotion International, Volume 34(1), pp. 82-94, (September 2019). This paper examines the extent to which attending major sporting events leads to subsequent changes in the sport participation behaviour of spectators. The research covered seven single-sport events of World or European level held in the UK in 2014 and was concerned with spectators (aged 16 and over) who attended one of these events. Baseline data was gathered from a sample of spectators at each event using a face-to-face survey. Follow-up data was captured using an online survey at least nine months post-event. Our analysis is based on 258 people for whom both baseline and follow-up data were available (matched pairs). Using the Transtheoretical Model (TTM), the evidence from this research points to a small (net) positive staged change in sport participation among the sample overall. Variations in the nature and scale of changes associated with events featuring different sports were observed. Progression between the TTM stages was evident for individuals who were previously in the pre-preparation, preparation and action stages. The likelihood of progression appears to be strongest where prior contemplation for behaviour change was prevalent. Event attendance emerged as an important contributor for moving individuals along the TTM continuum, alongside a range of other factors. The demonstration or trickle-down effect was the primary mechanism by which any sport participation legacy supported by these events occurred. The practical applications of the research and the wider health benefits of leveraging event-induced sport participation increases are discussed.
• Did London 2012 deliver a sports participation legacy? Themis Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-López, Girish Ramchandani, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(2), pp.276-287, (2019). Despite the increasing academic interest in the analysis of the Olympic legacy, there is a relative knowledge gap as far as sports participation legacy is concerned. The authors bridge this gap by analysing the short-term sports participation legacy of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games on the adult population in England. By using data from the Active People Survey and considering different sports participation variables and the effect of the economic climate, results demonstrate a positive association with participation from hosting the Games. Participation rates were adjusted to take into account seasonality and changes in the gross domestic product (GDP), accounting in this way for the effect of the recent economic recession. The biggest effect was observed in relation to frequent participation (at least three times per week for at least 30 minutes) in the year immediately after the Games. In 2014, the sports participation rates fell relative to 2013 but remained higher than pre-Olympic levels. The sport participation legacy of the Olympic Games appeared to have significant differences between socio-demographic groups.
• “The Legacy Element . . . It Just Felt More Woolly”: Exploring the Reasons for the Decline in People With Disabilities’ Sport Participation in England 5 Years After the London 2012 Paralympic Games, Christopher Brown, Athanasios (Sakis) Pappous, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 42(5), pp.343-368, (October 2018). This article explores why sports participation of people with disabilities in England has declined since the London 2012 Paralympic Games (LPG). Thirty semistructured interviews were conducted with staff employed in a variety of sports and disability-specific organizations. Our preliminary findings suggest that the decline is a result of a complex interplay between multiple factors. A competency gap and a lack of relevance between Paralympians and the rest of the community of people with disabilities might have limited the impact of the legacy. In addition, an absence of coordinated leveraging of the LPG, and a decline in the media coverage of disability sport in the aftermath of the LPG, might also have dulled the legacy. Finally, our data show that austerity and negative media coverage of people with disabilities deterred some people from participating in sport.
• Sport participation from sport events: why it doesn’t happen? Marijke Taks, B. Chris Green, Laura Misener, et.al., Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Volume 36(2), pp.185-198, (2018). The purpose of this paper is to present and use an event leveraging framework (ELF) to examine processes and challenges when seeking to leverage a sport event to build sport participation. The study used an action research approach for which the researchers served as consultants and facilitators for local sports in the context of the International Children’s Games. Initially three sports were selected, and two sports were guided through the full leveraging process. Prior to the event, actions were planned and refined, while researchers kept field notes. Challenges and barriers to implementation were examined through observation immediately prior to and during the event, and through a workshop with stakeholders six weeks after the event, and interviews a year later. With the exception of a flyer posted on a few cars during the track and field competition, none of the planned action steps was implemented. Barriers included competition and distrust among local sport clubs, exigencies associated with organizing event competitions, the event organizers’ focus on promoting the city rather than its sports, and each club’s insufficient human and physical resources for the task. These barriers were not addressed by local clubs because they expected the event to inspire participation despite their lack of marketing leverage. The lack of action resulted in no discernible impact of the event on sport participation. Results demonstrate that there are multiple barriers to undertaking the necessary steps to capitalize on an event to build sport participation, even when a well-developed framework is used. Specific steps to overcome the barriers need to be implemented, particularly through partnerships and building capacity for leverage among local sport organizations.
• Leveraging medium-sized sport events to attract club participants, Katharine Hoskyn, Geoff Dickson, Popi Sotiriadou, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Volume 36(2), pp.199-212, (2018). The purpose of this paper is to investigate how sport clubs can leverage participation from local, medium-sized, elite sport events. Key recommendations for clubs to leverage participation from a medium-sized event include: a leveraging plan should consider the resources and capacity of local community sport clubs; clubs should act collectively and collaboratively; and clubs should have a strong physical presence at the event(s).
• Long-term impact of the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games on sport participation: A cohort analysis, Kurumi Aizawa, Ji Wu, Yuhei Inoue, Mikihiro Sato, Sport Management Review, Volume 21(1), pp.86-97, (February 2018). This study investigated whether the cohort effect generated by the shared experience of hosting the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games during their youth can explain the increased sport participation of elderly Japanese. Data from the Japanese National Sport-Life Survey over 20 years were analysed through regression analysis. The results show that, after controlling for demographics and other determinants of sport participation, individuals who experienced the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games participated in sport more frequently than other generations. [this report generally seems to be an outlier to the normal narrative of no significant change].
• Survey report on awareness and participation behavior in disabled sports and disability understanding after Tokyo’s bid for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics, Kotomi Shiota, Journal of Physical Therapy Science, Volume 30(1), pp.5-10, (January 2018). This study analyzes awareness and participation behavior in disabled sports and disability understanding after Tokyo’s bid for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics. The results of this survey indicate that there was little or no intended or actual behaviour change within the population surveyed towards watching, participating, or volunteering in disabled sports. The author suggests that in order to change behaviour more needs to be done to promote and deepen understanding of, and participation in, disabled sport.
• The fiddle of using the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for expanding [dis]ability sport participation, P. David Howe and Carla Filomena Silva, Sport in Society, Volume 21(1), (2018). This paper highlights the need to explore the significance given to the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for the encouragement of participation of people with a disability within sport. The media spectacle around the games that the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has developed has become, for policy-makers and the public alike, a sufficient outlet for disability sport provision. The honourable goals of the IPC articulated through the ethos of Paralympism have been assumed to be valid for all people with a disability, yet in terms of widening participation, their utility is limited. This paper first illuminates the relationship between the International Olympic Committee and the IPC before we turn our attention to the ethos of Paralympism. Highlighting the necessity for ‘sport for all’, we use a human rights lens, aided by a capabilities approach to facilitate better ways to educate the public about the need for equality of access to sporting participation opportunities.
• Sport participation behaviours of spectators attending major sports events and event induced attitudinal changes towards sport, Girish Ramchandani, Richard J. Coleman, Jerry Bingham, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 8(2), pp.121-135, (June 2017). Evidence of the link between major sports events and increased participation at grassroots level is somewhat mixed. This paper examines attitudinal changes to sport participation among spectators associated with seven sports events held in Great Britain in 2014. Primary data was gathered from 4,590 spectators aged 16 and over who attended one of the events. Both positive (inspiration) effects and negative (discouragement) effects were considered through the lens of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM).The evidence from this research indicates that event audiences belong primarily to the latter (more active) stages of the TTM. It was also found that attending sports events can further fuel the existing desire of contemplators to increase participation, whereas the catalytic effect among pre-contemplators is arguably less potent. Virtually no discouragement effects were observed across the different TTM stages. The research stops short of measuring actual changes in sport participation post-event of individuals in the different TTM stages and any attribution of such behaviour changes to events. This is both a limitation of the current research and a natural direction for future research. Practical implications: The main implications for promoting sport participation through the medium of sports events include attracting more people in the early stages of the TTM, greater collaboration between different event stakeholders and the building of sport participation strategies into the event planning phase. Originality: Models of behaviour change such as the TTM have seldom been applied to document the current and/or planned sport participation behaviour of individuals in a sport event context or to examine attitudinal changes towards sport as a result of attending an event. An adapted version of the TTM has been proposed to overcome the limitations of the traditional model.
• Facilitating sport participation legacies from Olympic and Paralympic Games: the case of Whistler Adaptive Sports and Vancouver 2010, Dickson, T., and Darcy, S., NASSM Conference Abstract, (2017). Using a case study approach, this study explored the planning for and delivery of a sport participation legacy through the Whistler Adaptive Sports Program in the lead up to and following the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. It demonstrates that it is possible to achieve a a sport participation legacy from the Olympic and Paralympic Games, but it requires vision, planning and action.
• Creating sport participation from sport events: making it happen, Laurence Chalip, B. Christine Green, Marijke Taks and Laura Misener, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 9(2), pp.257-276, (2017). 12 expert panellists were invited to consider the challenges, opportunities, and prospects of leveraging sport events to enhance sport participation at local levels. It is concluded that sport events can be leveraged to enhance sport participation if the necessary alliances among sport organisations, event organisers and non-sport stakeholders are forged to integrate each event into the marketing mix of sport organisations. It is also noted that potential barriers to enhanced participation need to be addressed, particularly lack of available capacity to absorb new participants, crowding out of local participation by the event, and the disincentives resulting from elite performances that seem outside the reach of aspiring participants.
• Delivering Sports Participation Legacies at the Grassroots Level: The Voluntary Sports Clubs of Glasgow 2014, Macrae E, Journal of Sport Management, Volume 31(1), pp.15-26, (2017). This study investigated the experiences of volunteer sport clubs (VSCs) in Glasgow, before, during, and after key mega-events, with a focus on the impact of both the 2012 London Olympics and, in particular, the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games. Following Glasgow 2014, Sport Scotland released figures showing that between 2011 and 2015 there was an 11% increase in overall memberships (junior and senior) in the 17 Commonwealth Games sports, with some sports experiencing significant membership increases. Club membership is used to justify the legacy of major sporting events. This research identified key areas where focus should be placed when planning for any form of sports participation legacy from future mega-events: (1) ensuring VSC capacity; (2) providing tools for VSCs to retain new members; and (3) visibility of VSCs during and after the mega events. This study found that 64% of the clubs surveyed said they would not have the capacity to sustain a significant increase in members; given limitations in facilities, coaching, volunteers, safety considerations, etc. There appears to be few contingency plans in place to ensure that potential members have an alternative pathway to follow, and do not simply fall away from the sport. Although clubs could offer information and guidance, they were generally unable to offer full membership to every newcomer. The initial enthusiasm sparked by the Games could be lost, thus perpetuating the participation ‘spike phenomenon’ experienced during mega events. It remains to be seen if participation numbers among VSCs in Scotland can be sustained. Policy makers continue to champion the idea that the trickle-down effect of hosting a mega event will encourage a rise in post-event sport participation, but the evidence suggests that there is a greater need for localised strategies and initiatives to be set in place to encourage any sustained positive impact on participation.
• Leveraging the sport participation legacy of the London 2012 Olympics: senior managers’ perceptions, Emily Jane Hayday, Athanasios (Sakis) Pappous and Niki Koutrou, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 9(2), pp.349-369, (2017). The purpose of this study was to understand how a sports mega event (SME) was leveraged to try and increase participation, through the investigation of national governing bodies (NGBs) opinions and attitudes. This research offers insights to enhance the policy implementation process within the sports development sector. The importance of communication, competitive nature of sports system, media, club engagement, organisational capacity and monitoring and evaluation were highlighted, which provided useful insights into the multidimensional constructs that can aid future leveraging strategies prior to hosting SMEs.
• Sport participation legacies of mega sporting events, Mike Weed, Chapter 5 in Legacies and Mega Events , Routledge, (2017). Evidence to support or refute the possibility that mega sport events such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games can lead to increases in sport participation in host communities is mixed. Supporting evidence suggests, properly leveraged, events can get those already participating to participate more, get those that have participated in the past to participate again, and reduce drop-out be re-invigorating participation. Refuting evidence shows events do not have an inherent effect, and cannot increase participation among those that do not participate in sport and never have done. However, because recent event hosts have not systematically implemented evidence informed policies to increase sport participation, the conclusion of this chapter is that sport participation legacies from mega sport events can be considered neither fact nor fairy tale.
• Volunteering legacy of the London 2012 Olympics, Olesya Nedvetskaya, Vassil Girginov, Chapter 4 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). London 2012 Volunteering Strategy was premised on the commitment to use the Games as a way of inspiring a new generation of volunteers and contributing to a lasting volunteering legacy for the UK. Using a critical realist evaluation approach, this chapter examines the processes through which the volunteering legacy can be achieved, for whom, under what circumstances, and over which duration. It concludes that the momentum to build on the enthusiasm of 70,000 volunteers was lost, and the volunteering legacy became declared rather than delivered. This inevitably poses questions about the effectiveness of legacy planning and delivery. The chapter extends the body of knowledge about social legacies of mega sport events and their governance and can be highly beneficial for future bids and host cities.
• The legacy of the London 2012 Olympic Games: A case study of grass-roots sport clubs and the sport participation legacy, Guy Thomas, Ian Brittain, Andrew Jones, Chapter 13 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). A key potential benefit of hosting mega-events such as the Olympic Games that has increasingly attracted nations and cities to bid to host them is the potential to inspire and engage people, particularly young people, in sport and physical activity. Reasons for this range from tackling obesity and other health issues, thus reducing the cost of health service delivery, and to encouraging social cohesion. This research is based upon PhD data collected by the first author that aimed to determine what factors impact on the creation of a sustainable London 2012 Olympic Games grassroots sport participation legacy from the perspective of voluntary sport clubs.
• “Lead Up and Legacy” A case study of the 2015 Rugby World Cup, Gareth Jones, Mike Edwards, Nick Passenger, Chapter 12 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). The quadrennial Rugby World Cup (RWC) is an integral part of increasing rugby participation worldwide. In order to leverage the RWC to create a desired participation legacy, strategies must be strategically integrated into the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of the event. From this perspective, The Lead Up and Legacy Strategy of the 2015 RWC provides one of the most well-developed leveraging plans to date. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the plan, which focused on two primary areas: (1) building capacity and (2) increasing participation. The legacy impact within these two areas is briefly reviewed, and the discussion integrates these results within the broader literature on leveraging and legacy.
• Olympic sport and physical activity promotion: the rise and fall of the London 2012 pre-event mass participation ‘legacy’. Bretherton, Paul; Piggin, Joe; Bodet, Guillaume, International Journal of Sport Policy, Volume 8(4), pp.609-624, (November 2016). The legacies of Sport Mega Events (SMEs) such as the Olympic Games are increasingly regarded as significant opportunities to increase sport and physical activity (PA) participation. This article examines the pre-event sport/PA policy target of the London 2012 Olympic Games: the aim of increasing overall participation by two million between June 2008 and the Games in 2012 (a target that was abandoned in 2011). Three specific themes are discussed: the inconsistency between how sport/PA participation was constructed in terms of both ‘risk’ and ‘reward’ by different organisations; the reliance upon intangible concepts such as ‘inspiration’ and the status of the Olympic Games to increase participation; and the rationales given for the subsequent abandonment of the pre-event PA participation targets in 2011. The abandonment of the pre-Games participation targets holds two overarching policy implications for future SME host governments and organisers. First, host governments cannot rely on the unique status or ‘inspiration’ of the Games alone to increase participation and must pursue this more proactively. Second, the ultimate failure of these policies should not be attributed exclusively to their intrinsic limitations, but also to a range of external environmental factors. Pre-event SME legacies must therefore be planned with sufficient awareness of the social and political contexts in which the event takes place.
• Paralympic Legacy: Exploring the Impact of the Games on the Perceptions of Young People With Disabilities. Janine Kim Coates and Philip Vickerman, Adapted physical activity quarterly, Volume 33(4), pp. 338-357, (October 2016). The London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games aimed to deliver a legacy to citizens of the United Kingdom, which included inspiring a generation of young people to participate in sport. This study aimed to understand the legacy of the Paralympic Games for children with disabilities. Eight adolescents (11-16 yr) with physical disabilities were interviewed about their perceptions of the Paralympic Games. Thematic analysis found 3 key themes that further our understanding of the Paralympic legacy. These were Paralympians as role models, changing perceptions of disability, and the motivating nature of the Paralympics.
• Leveraging parasport events for sustainable community participation: The Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games, Laura Misener, David McGillivray, Gayle McPherson, et.al., Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 18(4), pp.450-469, (September 2015). Drawing on a case study of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, this article examines the extent to which the hosting of an integrated parasport event where able-bodied athletes and athletes with a disability compete alongside one another is being leveraged to create opportunities for community participation, and influence community attitudes towards disability. The assumption about hosting parasport events is that the mere visibility of events will impact attitudes and perceptions towards persons with disabilities in a positive manner; however, little evidence beyond anecdotes supports this assumption. Recent research on leveraging events also suggests the need to strategically utilize the opportunity of the event and related resources if seeking to attain sustainable positive impacts for the host community. The results suggest that whilst at the strategic level there was evidence of an integrated policy approach to leveraging the event for broader accessibility outcomes, this was not always accompanied by clear programmes or projects that are likely to lead to demonstrable impacts beyond the normal temporality of large-scale sporting events. We conclude by suggesting that the absence of clear, resourced and measurable aspirations for the parasport element of the Games may lead to unfulfilled leveraging possibilities as levels of interest and resources diminish.
• The Olympic Games and raising sport participation: a systematic review of evidence and an interrogation of policy for a demonstration effect. Weed, Mike; Coren, Esther; Fiore, Jo; et.al., European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 15(2), pp.195-226, (April 2015). This article investigates the potential impact of the ‘demonstration effect’ on increasing sport participation and finds that although there is no evidence for an inherent demonstration effect, a potential demonstration effect, properly leveraged, may deliver increases in sport participation frequency and re-engage lapsed participants. It also suggests that the successive UK Governments failed to harness the potential influence of the 2012 London Olympic and Paralympic Games demonstration effect on demand and therefore failed to deliver increased participation.
• Did the 2000 Sydney Olympics increase physical activity among adult Australians? Bauman, Adrian; Bellew, Bill; Craig, Cora L., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 49(4), pp.243-247, (2015), p.243. The Olympic Games' (OG) organisers typically hope that a diverse range of health legacies, including increases in physical activity and sport participation will result from their hosting of the OG. Despite these aspirations, the effects of the Olympics on physical activity levels remain to be demonstrated in large-scale population studies. This study examined the short-term impact of the Sydney 2000 OG, using serial cross-sectional population physical activity surveys of Australian adults in November 1999 and November 2000. Findings indicated that the intention to be active in the next month increased after the Games (adjusted OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.24), but was not associated with physical activity behaviour change. The legacy of the OG may be apparent through new infrastructure and other urban improvements, but evidence of their influence on physical activity levels remains elusive. Without multiyear integrated and well-funded programmes to promote physical activity, the Olympic legacy of a more active community may remain more rhetoric than reality.
• Limited or lasting legacy? The effect of non-mega sport event attendance on participation, Girish Ramchandani, Larissa Elaine Davies, Richard Coleman, et.al., European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 15(1), pp.93-110, (2015). It is often claimed by event promoters that hosting major sports events will inspire increased participation at grass-roots level. However, evidence of this linkage is scarce. This paper addresses the research gap by examining the legacy effect of ‘non-mega’ events on the sport participation levels of those who attend them. Data gathered using a combination of face-to-face and online surveys with spectators during and following their attendance at one of nine events, held in England between 2010 and 2012, yielded 434 matched responses. The analysis revealed different types of increases in post-event participation behaviour of both previously active and inactive respondents, including ‘initial’, ‘sustained’ and ‘lagged’ effects. However, attributing causality for these positive changes in activity behaviour to a single event is problematic due to the range of other factors that audiences may experience with the passage of time, including other events. The key implication of the research for management practice is that major sport events can have a positive market penetration effect but market development effects are as yet unproven.
• Factors influencing the inspirational effect of major sports events on audience sport participation behaviour, Girish Ramchandani, Themistocles Kokolakakis, Richard Coleman, World Leisure Journal, Volume 56(3), pp.220-235, (2014). The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the factors that determine the extent to which spectators attending one-off sports events feel inspired to increase their own participation in sport. The research considers both the socio-demographic and sport participation profile of the audience as well as the characteristics of an event as predictors of inspiration. The methodological approach involved secondary analysis of data collected from audiences across 10 events held in England since 2010. The findings are based on an aggregate sample of 7458 respondents. The statistical method used to analyse the data was multinomial logistic regression. The results show that the majority of respondents were inspired by the event that they attended, but the strength of the inspiration effect varied significantly according to their age; place of residence; ethnic origin; sport participation profile; and whether or not they had been exposed to information about opportunities to undertake sport. Moreover, events featuring team sports, non-age restricted events and elite events incorporating a mass participation component were also found to be positively related to inspiration. Several policy implications are identified for event organizers and public funders of both elite and community sport.
• Rio 2016 and the sport participation legacies. Reis, Arianne C.; de Sousa-Mast, Fabiana Rodrigues; et.al., Leisure Studies, Volume 33(5), pp.437-453, (2014). The aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions held by physical education professionals of the sport participation legacy associated with the 2016 Olympic Games (Rio 2016). The perceptions of post-Games changes in sport participation, using the 2007 Rio de Janeiro Pan-American Games as a point of comparison, ranged from no impact to a short-term increase. The reason for this, according to participants, was the lack of long-term planning and policies to encourage and promote sport participation. In conclusion, in order for benefits of mega events to be leveraged, the different levels of government need to develop long-term actions and policies to encourage sports participation in conjunction with the employment of the infrastructural legacy towards this end.
• The inspirational effects of three major sport events, Ramchandani, G.M. and Coleman, R.J., International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 3(3), pp.257-271, (2012). The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether attending one‐off sport events might inspire audiences to increase their participation in sport or recreational physical activity. Primary data collection was undertaken with spectators aged 16 and over at three major sport events held in the UK in 2010. The findings are based on an aggregate sample of 2,312 respondents. Around two‐thirds of respondents reported that their event experience had inspired them to increase their participation in sport or physical activity. The inspiration effect varied according to age and respondents’ predisposition to sport. The main factors that caused the inspiration were linked directly to the athletes and the competition. The provision of information about opportunities to undertake sport was found to be the most important lever to convert inspiration into participation. Evidence of the impact of major sport events on mass participation is relatively scarce and inconclusive. In order for any “trickle‐down” effect to occur, it would be reasonable to assume that audiences would first be inspired by their event experience. It is this basic sense of inspiration that the research aimed to measure.
• The sport participation legacy of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games and other international sporting events hosted in Australia, A. J. Veal, Kristine Toohey, Stephen Frawley, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, Volume 4, pp.155-184, (2012). The legacy of an Olympic Games in a host city or country can take a variety of forms, including non-sporting benefits, such as enhanced urban infrastructure and national and international tourism profile, and sporting benefits, such as improved sporting facilities, strengthened sports organisations and potential increases in grassroots sport participation. This paper concentrates on the last of these, particularly in regard to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. The paper examines claims by the Olympic movement concerning increased sports participation as a legacy and examines available evidence to consider whether the hosting of the Games boosted sports participation in Australia. While some estimates suggest that participation did increase following the hosting of the 2000 Olympics, the failure of relevant organisations to maintain an adequate and consistent data collection regime makes this conclusion extremely speculative. From 2001 onwards, with the existence of a more stable data collection system and increasing awareness of the idea of a sport participation legacy, it is possible to make more reliable estimates of the pattern of grassroots sports participation following the hosting of the 2003 Rugby World Cup and the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games. However, even when reliable and consistent participation data are available, the question of causality in the context of the wider sport development and participation system remains to be addressed.
• Sustainable community development through sport and events: A conceptual framework for Sport-for-Development projects, Nico Schulenkorf, Sport Management Review, Volume 15(1), pp.1-12, (2012). Sport-for-Development projects have increasingly been staged to contribute to intergroup togetherness, social cohesion and community empowerment. While the analyses of individual sport and event initiatives highlights their capacity to impact positively on people and groups, they do not provide strategic guidelines, models or frameworks for community empowerment. However, such models are needed to foster practical research in the area of community development that can inform sport and event planning, management and leverage. In an attempt to fill this gap, this paper presents and discusses the Sport-for-Development (S4D) Framework, which can be used to guide the strategic investigation of sport and event projects and their contribution to understanding and measuring direct social impacts and sustainable social outcomes for (disparate) communities. The S4D Framework presents a holistic yet flexible management tool that can take account of cultural heterogeneity and program diversity, while shaping implementation, directing evaluation, and encouraging future planning of development initiatives
• The hidden benefits of non-elite mass participation sports events: An economic perspective, Coleman R and Ramchandani G, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Volume 12, Issue 1, (2010). This paper examines the hidden financial benefits that non-elite events are capable of delivering for host cities. The paper provides examples of how mass participation (and other non-elite) events can generate substantial economic impacts comparable to, and in some cases greater than, those associated with elite events. The cost-effectiveness of hosting mass participation events, relative to major elite sports events, is discussed.

• Building Legacy: Securing the Lasting Impact of Sporting Mega-Events, Qatar Economic Forum, Bloomberg Live, YouTube, (24 June 2021). Contemporary mega-events, like the World Cup and the Olympics, fundamentally change the face of their host cities. What lessons can be learned from modern sports events at the national and international levels?
• Building Capacity for Sport Participating Through Events, SIRCTalks/Exposés, YouTube, (23 June 2020). Research with small and medium sport event host communities has shown local sport organizations are interested in leveraging sport events to encourage new participation but often lack the capacity to do so. In this SIRCTalks episode, Marijke Taks, Professor of Sport Management at the University of Ottawa, discusses the role sport organizations have in stimulating new participation in sport.

• Commonwealth Games to put the Gold Coast on the global tourism map, Tourism & Transport Forum media release, (3 April 2018). The poll, commissioned by the Tourism & Transport Forum Australia (TTF), found that Australians believe the biggest long-term benefit of the Games will be the promotion of the Gold Coast on the global stage (40 per cent), beating out improved infrastructure and services (22 per cent) and additional jobs and economic growth (14 per cent). The survey also found that when asked whether the 2018 Commonwealth Games will help promote Australia to the world, 71 per cent said yes, 11 per cent said no and 18 per cent were not sure.
• London 2017: Key Stats Infographic, London & Partners, (2017). The IAAF World Athletics and World Para-Athletics Championships, which were held in 2017, have also showcased London in a positive way, with 97% of fans who attended the two events agreeing that they showed London to be a positive, vibrant city, with between 91 and 95% feeling that the events had a positive effect on London communities.
• Major sports events and cycling boom drives economy, Andrew Cave and Alex Miller, The Telegraph, (7 July 2016). The London 2012 Olympic Games showed that Britain can stage world-class sport and a properly planned legacy can benefit the economy for years.
• World Cup: Good for diplomacy, good for business, Pizzano-Miraglia P and Miraglia S, sportanddev.org, (18 February 2014). Sport has long been used as a political platform for diplomatic relations in underdeveloped countries. The authors contend that hosting events such as the World Cup serves as an example of uniting governments, nations, fans and players.

• Promoting a Strategic Approach to EU Sports Diplomacy Transnational Actors in Sport Diplomacy: Perspectives of Cooperation [draft], Professor Albrecht Sonntag, et.al., Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union, (June 2020). Sport diplomacy, as a field of academic research, is still a very young sub-discipline, bringing together a variety of different approaches and perspectives. The recent attempts to provide a conceptual framework for the field1 attest to this view, and simultaneously confirm that as the 21st century unfolds, there is a growing awareness on all sides that sport’s relevance in international relations can no longer be ignored.
• Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key trade, investment and tourism benefits identified were:
  • Hosting the Games has ‘showcased’ the host city’s culture worldwide with a TV audience of 1-1.5 billion.
  • Hosting the Games has led to increases in tourism of up to 25% in the three years after hosting, as well as trade deals agreements and investments of up to £400 million into the host city.
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community.
• Community Perceptions Survey 2017: Research Report, Essence Communications, [restricted access] (2017). In 2017, as part of the development of the National Sports Plan, the Australian Sports Commission commissioned Essence Communications to conduct a national survey. Through a nationally representative sample (n=3,541) the research sought to establish current perceptions of and the importance of goals for high performance sport, sport participation, cultural, and public health outcomes; expectations of opportunity and success; and current participation in physical activity and sport. Results were reported for key groups (such as gender; age segments; cultural background (CALD, LOTE, ATSI, recent migrants <5 years); income segments; and parents). A market segmentation analysis, based on behaviour and attitudes to physical activity and sport, was also used. The segmentation identified 5 key groups in the population, Club active fans (17%); Non–club active fans (21%), Sidelined advocates (10%), Active ambivalent (31%), and Inactive ambivalent (22%). The two sport ambivalent segments made up about 53% of the population. Some key findings in regards to high performance sport included:
  • Reputation and identity — Australians generally believed that sport contributes to our national identity (78%), with a similar percentage saying it is important that Australia is respected on the international sporting stage (78%). A clear majority also believed that high performance sport gives Australia positive international exposure (77%). While representation in international sport instils pride (78%) it is also seen as very important that Australian athletes perform well (74%), with nearly half (45%) expecting Australia to be in the top 10 ten and over half (55%) expecting Australia to be in the top 20.
• London four years on: a global host for sport, London & Partners, (July 2016). When seven young British athletes lit the Olympic cauldron in front of tens of thousands of global dignitaries, celebrities and sports fans on 27 July, 2012 it not only marked the start of 17 days of sporting achievement, it began London’s Olympic and Paralympic legacy. Four years on, the capital remains a global host of major sporting events. Whether it’s rugby or field hockey, athletics or cycling, American football or NBA basketball, London’s world-leading sporting venues continue to be a fitting home for the world’s top athletes, performing in front of packed out stadia and to audiences worldwide. During that time, London has hosted over 30 large-scale sporting events. This document showcases what the city has delivered since the Olympic cauldron was extinguished.

• Mega-events and place branding legacy for emerging economies, Brendon Knott, Kamilla Swart, Chapter 9 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). Countries and cities are increasingly looking to sport mega-events to change or enhance their international reputation or brand image. While few would argue with the global attention these events command, assessing a definitive legacy for the place brand of the host is a more complex exercise. Similar to other legacy criticisms, questions remain around the longevity of perceived branding gains. This chapter details a number of different studies conducted to assess aspects of the place brand legacy from the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. The chapter discusses the branding opportunities that resulted from the event, the role of stakeholders in sustaining these branding gains, and the opportunities that exist for place branding legacy beyond sport mega-events, particularly for emerging place brands. Fact: Mega-events provide significant branding opportunities for cities and nations, especially within developing economies. Fairy tale: A positive branding legacy is an expected outcome from hosting a mega-event, without intentional, sustained leveraging efforts of brand stakeholders.
• Soft power and soft disempowerment: Qatar, global sport and football’s 2022 World Cup finals, Paul Michael Brannagan, Richard Giulianotti, Leisure Studies, Volume 34, pp.703-719, (2015). This paper examines the critical role of global sport within Qatar’s international strategy, most notably through the successful bid to stage the 2022 football World Cup. Our discussion draws particularly on interviews with key stakeholders in the Qatari sport system, as well as fieldwork in Qatar and the analysis of relevant documents and secondary materials. The paper is separated into five main parts. First, we set out our theoretical framework, which draws on the concepts of globalization and soft power; to assist in the analysis of Qatar’s engagement with global sport, we introduce the two further concepts of ‘glocal consciousness’ and ‘soft disempowerment’. Second, we provide the reader with background information on Qatar and Qatari sport. Third, we discuss three key themes that emerged mainly from our interviews on Qatar and global sport: exhibiting Qatar’s supremacies as a microstate; the pursuit of peace, security and integrity; and confronting national health crises. Fourth, we explore issues of soft disempowerment and reputational risk with regard to these three themes and, in particular, critical international comment surrounding Qatar’s hosting of the 2022 World Cup. Fifth, we conclude by arguing that Qatar’s soft disempowerment, although damaging in the short term, leaves the door open for the state to respond in a positive manner, regenerating its soft power capabilities in the process.
• Interrogating states' soft power strategies: a case study of sports mega-events in Brazil and the UK, Grix, J., Brannagan, P.M., and Houlihan, B., Global Society, Volume 29(3), pp.463-479, (2015). Central to this article is the use of sports mega-events as part of a state's “soft power” strategy. The article offers two things: first, a critique of the “soft power” concept and a clearer understanding of what it refers to by drawing on the political use of sports mega-events by states; second, the article seeks to understand how and why sports mega-events are attractive to states with different political systems and at different stages of economic development. To this end a case study of an advanced capitalist state (London Olympics, 2012) and a so-called “emerging” state (FIFA World Cup, 2014; Rio Olympics, 2016) will be undertaken in order to shed light on the role of sports events as part of soft power strategies across different categories of states.
• Soft Power, Sports Mega-Events and Emerging States: The Lure of the Politics of Attraction, Jonathan Grix, Donna Lee, Global Society, Volume 27(4), pp.521-536, (2013). This article highlights and analyses a hitherto largely neglected dimension to the growing agency of large developing countries in global affairs: their hosting of international sports mega-events. Why are large developing countries hosting sports mega-events and what does this contemporary phenomenon tell us about the significance of, for example, the Olympics and the World Cup in global affairs? We explore these questions through brief examination of the cases of the three most active sports mega-event hosting states in recent times: Brazil, China and South Africa. The 2008 Beijing Olympics, the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, and the upcoming 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games in Brazil provide interesting examples with which to explore developing country agency in the international system and in particular the discursive basis of that agency. We see the hosting of sports mega-events as the practice of public diplomacy by states to both demonstrate existing soft power capability as well as pursue its further enhancement.

• Sports Diplomacy 2030, Australian Government, Department of Health, (2019). The second Australian sport diplomacy strategy is linked to the national Sport 2030 plan and looks to create closer collaboration between the Australian sports codes, industry and government to leverage the nation’s sporting excellence in ways that enhance Australia’s influence and reputation to advance our national interests, including, promoting Australia as a host of choice for major international sporting events and leveraging associated legacy opportunities.

• Sporting thrills on wheels returning for Santos Festival of Cycling, Tourism SA, (20 September 2021). The Santos Tour Down Under is a much-loved event on the world cycling and Australian sporting calendar and an important economic driver for South Australia, attracting 44,000 people, injecting 742 jobs and more than $66 million into the economy when last held in 2020.
• Economic impact of Cricket World Cup 2019 revealed, Ben Avison, Host City, (4 March 2020). The findings of an economic impact and benefits analysis carried out on behalf of the ICC by The Sports Consultancy show that the tournament generated almost GBP 350 million of economic impact through additional money spent in the host economy by event visitors and organisers as well as business to business supplier contracts and broader consumer spend.
• £8.1 million boost for Liverpool economy following Netball World Cup, Sheffield Hallam University, (28 February 2020). The £8.18m boost was generated by the influx of fans (£6.04m), other attendee groups such as the media and event personnel (£1.32m) and the organisers (£0.82m).Overall 6.07 million people in Britain attended, watched or followed the tournament which took place in July 2019.
• Play for all: Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Nicola Alcorn, Deloitte, (8 February 2019). Invictus Games Sydney 2018 welcomed 491 competitors and over 1000 of their family and friends from 18 participating nations for 8 days of competition. The celebration of strength and recovery inspired many, and amassed 1000 avid volunteers for the event. The events were held in Sydney Harbour and at Sydney Olympic Park, enabling community participation and driving community spirit through play.
  • It is estimated that competitors, family and friends, volunteers, and the general public spent approximately $5.4 million during their stay in NSW and 94% of this expenditure was in Sydney. The total organising, planning and tourism contribution of the Games is estimated at $29.7 million in value added and supported 211 FTE employees in the NSW economy.
• Gold Coast Marathon pumps $28.5 million into economy, Gold Coast Marathon, (11 September 2018). The 40th edition of the Gold Coast Marathon generated a record-breaking $28.5 million and more than 100,000 visitor nights for the Queensland economy. New data shows the event also attracted more than 27,000 participants including more than 6500 in the sold-out signature marathon event. The Marathon was the first major sporting event on the Gold Coast after the Games and gave runners the chance to run parts of the Commonwealth Games course. The feedback we’ve received showed this was added incentive for international athletes.
• Tour Down Under 2018 attracts record number of spectators and generates $63.7million, Nigel Wynn, Cycling Weekly, (16 May 2018). Australian WorldTour stage race breaks its previous record for number of spectators and visitors, and the amount of revenue generated by the January event. In addition to those who turned up to watch the race in person, the 2018 Tour Down Under generated 27,500 items of media coverage which had a potential audience of 558 million people worldwide.
• Euro 2016 generates €1.22bn boost to French economy - report, Sport Business International, (12 January 2017). France’s hosting of the Uefa Euro 2016 national team football tournament provided a boost to the national economy of €1.22bn ($1.28bn), according to a report issued by the Centre for Law and Economics of Sport (CDES).
• Major sports events and cycling boom drives economy, Andrew Cave and Alex Miller, The Telegraph (7 July 2016). The London 2012 Olympic Games showed that Britain can stage world-class sport and a properly planned legacy can benefit the economy for years.
• New report confirms record-breaking Rugby World Cup 2015 economic impact, World Rugby (25 May 2016). RWC 2015 was the most economically-successful Rugby World Cup ever, with nearly £2.3 billion generated in economic output according to a report published by Ernst and Young.
• How Global Sporting Events Score Economic Goals, Mike Fletcher, Raconteur, (2 March 2016). As another summer of spectacular sport beckons, what is the business case for hosting a major global sporting event? Is the investment in stadiums and infrastructure matched by increased visitor numbers and spending?
• 2015 AFC Asian Cup delivers $81 million economic impact, Australasian Leisure Management, (3 February 2016). A year after the Socceroos lifted the AFC Asian Cup, new research shows that hosting Asia's football showpiece created $81 million in economic impact for the country. More than $7 million was added to the country’s gross domestic product by a tournament that sold more than 650,000 tickets and produced eight sold-out games - a quarter of the overall fixtures. Fans flocked to games generating an average attendance of 20,000 spectators per game, partly driven by Australia’s successful run but also by a wide ranging multicultural program run by organisers in the build-up. The research shows that $81 million total direct expenditure nationally can be attributed to the Asian Cup, generating a boost of $7.3 million to GDP. Though this figure was only a third of some pre-tournament forecasts, the 2015 edition of the AFC Asian Cup was seen as easily the most successful in its history from a football perspective, with ticket sales 30% higher than the forecasts beforehand. More than 300 jobs were created, 15,000 tourists came from overseas and almost 30,000 interstate travellers visited other Australian states specifically for the Asian Cup. Of the $81 million of direct expenditure, $30 million came from the tournament’s Local Organising Committee (funded by the federal, NSW, Queensland and Victorian governments), $8m from interstate visitors and $43.2 million from international travellers.
• ICC Cricket World Cup Demontrates Value of Big Event, Tourism Australia, media release, (30 June 2015). According to Tourism Australia the findings of a report analysing the economic impact and benefits of the 2015 ICC Cricket World Cup demonstrate the value and importance of Australian tourism backing large scale events. The tourism benefits of the tournament to Australia included:
  • 770,000 in total attendance at the Australian matches;
  • 370,000 visitors, including 100,000 from overseas;
  • $325m in international visitor spending;
  • 1.5m bed nights, including 815,000 for international visitors.
• Circus Maximus, Play The Game, (21 May 2015). In this book, US sports economist Andrew Zimbalist analyses the benefits and risks of hosting a sports mega-event and finds that the economic risks by far exceed the benefits.
• Minding The Gap Between London's Olympic Economic Hype And Reality, Kenneth Rapoza, Forbes, (2 August 2012). Looks at the potential ROI of London hosting the Olympic Games referencing case studies of several other cities, such as Atlanta and Salt Lake City. Seems to argue that the long term results are generally positive, particularly in regards to updating major infrastructure (such as the London subway system). Such projects, without the impetus of hosting a Games, may not receive public support, but still provide a long-term benefit.

• Study on the environmental and socio-economic impact of the FIFA Women's World Cup France 2019™, Utopies for Local Organising Committee and Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), (February 2020: Translation: March 2021). Reflecting six months of work involving numerous organisations and territories, the results of the study provide a better understanding of and make it possible to gauge the environmental impact of the competition, as well as its economic influence and net capital gain for each of the affected territories. Since evaluating its social impact is a long-term process, this is still being analysed. Some of the key economic impacts highlighted included:
  • The competition made a direct, indirect and induced contribution of EUR 284m to France’s gross domestic product (GDP).
  • The net capital gain generated by the tournament is estimated to have contributed EUR 108m to France’s GDP (i.e. the annual salaries of 2,244 people).
  • Each euro spent on the organisation of this tournament (LOC + host territories), contributed EUR 1.30 to the GDP.
  • A total of EUR 195m was spent in France, of which 48% was spent by organisers (LOC, FIFA, FFF, host territories) and 52% by visitors (French and foreign).
• Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key economic benefits and costs identified were:
  • Spending to host the Commonwealth Games boosts the host city/country economy in the years before, during and after the Games. Hosting the Games has boosted GDP in the host city/region by £0.8 billion– £1.2 billion and generated between 13,600 and 23,000 full time equivalent (FTE) years of employment before, during and after the Games.
  • Hosting the Games has led to increases in tourism of up to 25% in the three years after hosting, as well as trade deals agreements and investments of up to £400 million into the host city.
  • Total Games-related operating expenditure ranges from £221 million for Manchester 2002 to £749 million for Gold Coast 2018, whilst Games-related capital expenditure has varied between £75 million for Glasgow 2014 to £292 million for Gold Coast 2018. The public sector has historically contributed between 54% (Manchester 2002) and 83% (Gold Coast 2018) of the Games-related operating costs.
  • The Games have provided an effective fiscal dividend to host cities as they have attracted public funding which they would not otherwise have received. For example: for every £1 spent by local government on total Games-related expenditure (operating and capital), the national (and devolved) government contributed £2.7 in Manchester 2002 and £3.0 in Glasgow 2014; in Australia, the state government contributed 75% and 79% of total public-sector Games-related expenditure in Melbourne 2006 and Gold Coast 2018 respectively.
• 2032 SEQ Olympic and Paralympic Games Feasibility Study, Council of Mayors South East Queensland and Lagardere Sports/EKS, (February 2019). The report considers two essential questions in determining feasibility. The first is ‘can’ the Games be staged in South East Queensland (SEQ)? The second, and perhaps more important question is ‘should’ Council of Mayors (SEQ) propose the hosting of an Olympic Games? It concludes that with an estimated bottom line of $900 million, early assessments indicate the Olympic and Paralympic Games are an affordable proposition for SEQ. The Council of Mayors (SEQ) encourages the Queensland Government to join with the SEQ Mayors in undertaking further economic assessments.
• Economic impacts of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games: 2018 Post-Games Report, Tien Duc Pham, et al., Griffith University, (November 2018). This report, produced by Griffith University in 2018, builds on the earlier 2017 Economic Impact Study utilising Games year and post-Games data that is now available. It estimates the likely overall economic and employment benefits of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games for Queensland over the nine-year pre-Games, Games-year, and post-Games period (2013-2022).
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key economic impact and legacy outcomes included:
  • Over 1,500 employees; 15,000 volunteers; 238 student internships; over 30,000 contractors.
  • 342 infrastructure projects across the Gold Coast and Tweed regions linked to GC2018, worth a total of $13.2 billion.
  • 680,000 people spending $1.1 billion in the local economy. Estimates GC2018 will deliver $4 billion in economic activity for Queensland.
• Gold Coast business and the Commonwealth Games: Impact, legacy and opportunity, Joan Carlini and Andrew O’Neil, Griffith University, (July 2017). This report seeks to provide clarity around the various opportunities for business resulting from GC2018. It also aims to assist business to set realistic expectations enabling strategic decisions that will drive success, long after the Games has concluded. The report is structured in two parts. Part one provides background and context by detailing the scope of GC2018, lessons from previous global sporting mega-events, and the unique characteristics of GC2018 in relation to the Gold Coast. Part two identifies the macro factors affecting the Gold Coast, and provides an in-depth analysis of the opportunities for business to leverage major benefits from GC2018.
• Cricket World Cup 2015 Ltd: economic impact and benefit analysis of the ICC Cricket World Cup 2015, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Final Report, (2015). The ICC CWC 2015 was hailed by the ICC Chairman as the ‘most popular Cricket World Cup in history’, based on a combination of attendance, television audience, and, perhaps most significantly, digital media. The widespread reach of the Tournament across much of the globe, including many non-cricketing nations, was one of the main contributors to its overwhelming success. This report found that the tournament provided a significant economic boost for co-hosts Australia and New Zealand, generating more than AU$1.1 billion in direct spending and creating the equivalent of 8,320 full-time jobs.
• Annual report 2014-2015, Australian Government, Department of Health, (2015). The Asian Cup exceeded all expectations with attendance figures of over 620,000 (an average of 20,326 per game) with eight sell out matches (including three not involving the Socceroos). The CWC sold over 1 million tickets and had a global reach of more than 1.5 billion people. The events achieved significant outcomes in relation to the economy, trade and the community: the Asian Cup created $128 million in direct expenditure and Football Federation Australia has already seen a 6% increase in club registrations; the CWC injected $1.10 billion into the Australian and New Zealand economies and created 8,320 full-time equivalent jobs across the two nations.
• Reinventing rural places: the extent and impact of festivals in rural and regional Australia, Gibson C, Stewart A, University of Wollongong (2009). This Australian Research Council project examined festivals from 2005-2008 in rural and regional Australia through a database profile of festivals across three states (NSW, Victoria and Tasmania). Sport made up 36.5 % of festivals captured. Information was collected on job creation, volunteerism, marketing and advertising, environment and community. This research will assist those planning sporting events in rural and regional communities.
• Economic impact study of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games: Post-event analysis, KPMG and the Office of Commonwealth Games Coordination, (2006). The total expenditure associated with the 2006 Games in Victoria was around $2.9 billion. In terms of the impact on the Victorian economy, using a Computable General Equilibrium modelling approach, the 2006 Games was estimated to result in an increase in Gross State Product of around $1.6 billion. The positive impact of the Games on the Victorian economy is derived from two major effects: (1) the external money input into the economy of Victoria through tourist visitation; and (2) the bringing forward of the activity associated with the facilities investment required to undertake the Games.

• Assessing the Olympic Games: the economic impacts and beyond, Pasquale Lucio Scandizzo, Maria Rita Pierleoni, Journal of Economic Surveys, Volume 32(3), pp.649-682, (July 2018). The study reviews the main approaches to the economic assessment of the Games, from the point of view of the underlying economic concepts and methodologies, as well as of the empirical results obtained. It focuses on the effects that are measured and on those, which even though important, are generally neglected. The general findings appear to be controversial with some hints of positive overall effects, but also with a well-documented tendency to exaggerate the benefits and underestimate the costs of holding the Games in the ex ante versus the ex post studies. The survey finally suggests that ex post cross-country econometric studies tend to catch sizable differential and persistent benefits ignored by individual studies, especially on macroeconomic and trade variables.
• Mega-sport events, micro and small business leveraging: introducing the 'MSE-MSB leverage model', Seth Kirby, Michael Duignan, David McGillivray, Event Management, Volume 22, pp.917-931, (2018). Micro and small business (MSB) interests legitimize mega-sport event (MSE) candidature bids. Yet, MSB interests can be sidelined in the event lead up, live staging, and legacy periods. This article provides a detailed: 1) review of MSE impacts on existing MSBs residing within targeted host communities, 2) conceptual and practical examination of MSE leveraging opportunities, 3) synthesis of good inclusionary practices identified in previous MSE case studies. As a result, a series of general and specific ways MSEs can foster MSB leveraging and legitimize local interests are suggested. We present a comprehensive analysis of key works since mid-1990s related to the themes identified above. Our analysis identifies that there is limited conceptual and empirical research on MSB impact and leveraging activities in the context of MSEs, yet significant evidence points to negative experiences, disruption, and displacement effects on residential (host) communities. We purposively focus on good practice in the context of other MSEs from the Olympics Games (e.g., London 2012, Rio 2016) and FIFA World Cup (e.g., South Africa, 2010) to inform recommendations and managerial implications. We outline a systematic series of ways MSBs can be structurally excluded from accessing MSE leveraging opportunities. Building on Chalip’s widely adopted event leverage model (ELM), we present the “MSE–MSB Leverage Model” to illustrate how MSEs can (re)position MSBs as legitimate stakeholders to support greater leveraging opportunities and better (re)distribute event benefits back into host communities across planning and delivery stages. These range from reconfiguring: 1) event planning principles and policies, 2) regulatory and trading environments, and 3) the development of MSB business-to-business networks and partnerships.
• Economic legacy to cities of hosting major sports events: A case study of London 2012, Chris Gratton, Girish Ramchandani, Chapter 8 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). This chapter provides a framework to identify the key elements that make up economic legacy and then goes on to use that framework to measure the direct economic benefits to London and the UK from hosting the summer Olympics in 2012. The final section deals with the indirect economic benefits that are generated as a result of the hosting of the Olympics, leading to an increase in sport participation which then generates other economic benefits following the event.
• Bringing Home the Gold? A Review of the Economic Impact of Hosting Mega-Events, Barrios, D., Russell, S. & Andrews, M., CID Working Paper No. 320, Harvard University, (July 2016). This article focuses on claims surrounding the direct or indirect mechanisms that facilitate the impact that ex-ante studies predict. We provide a review of these claims and their validity according to the existing literature.
• Going for Gold: The Economics of the Olympics, Robert A. Baade and Victor A. Matheson, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Volume 30(2), pp.201-218, (Spring 2016). In this paper, we explore the costs and benefits of hosting the Olympic Games. On the cost side, there are three major categories: general infrastructure such as transportation and housing to accommodate athletes and fans; specific sports infrastructure required for competition venues; and operational costs, including general administration as well as the opening and closing ceremony and security. Three major categories of benefits also exist: the short-run benefits of tourist spending during the Games; the long-run benefits or the "Olympic legacy" which might include improvements in infrastructure and increased trade, foreign investment, or tourism after the Games; and intangible benefits such as the "feel-good effect" or civic pride.
• Assessing the Olympics: Preliminary economic analysis of a Boston 2024 Games – Impacts, opportunities and risks, University of Massachusetts, Donahue Institute for Economic and Public Policy Research, (March 2015). This report neither suggests that holding the 2024 Olympic Games will be an economic success, nor does it predict economic disaster. Instead, it shows that staging an Olympics Games could be a net economic positive, but that success will depend upon smart budgeting and effective planning to avoid some of the huge cost overruns that have beset some Olympics host cities in the past.
• The hidden benefits of non-elite mass participation sports events: An economic perspective,, Coleman R and Ramchandani G, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Volume 12(1), (2010). This paper examines the hidden financial benefits that non-elite events are capable of delivering for host cities. The paper provides examples of how mass participation (and other non-elite) events can generate substantial economic impacts comparable to, and in some cases greater than, those associated with elite events. The cost-effectiveness of hosting mass participation events, relative to major elite sports events, is discussed.
• The Sydney Olympics, seven years on: An ex-post dynamic CGE assessment, Giesecke J and Madden J, Centre of Policy Studies, Monash University, General Paper Number G-168, (2007). This analysis is based upon a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. This analysis found that the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games generated a net consumption loss of approximately $2.1 billion. The increase in foreign tourist spending lifted Australia’s terms of trade by only 0.09% in 2000-01. The sectors that gained most were those who sold goods, provided accommodation, services and transport to tourists.
• Socio-economic impact of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, Haynes J, Centre d’Estudis Olimpics UAB, (2001). The total cost of staging the Olympic Games as announced by NSW Treasurer Michael Egan was $6.5 billion. Several projection reports on the economic impact of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games appeared before the Games, they estimated that over the period 1994-95 through 2005-06 the Sydney Games would generate a total of $6.5 billion in economic activity, a large part of this through increased tourism.

• Play for all: Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Nicola Alcorn, Deloitte, (8 February 2019). Invictus Games Sydney 2018 welcomed 491 competitors and over 1000 of their family and friends from 18 participating nations for 8 days of competition. The celebration of strength and recovery inspired many, and amassed 1000 avid volunteers for the event. The events were held in Sydney Harbour and at Sydney Olympic Park, enabling community participation and driving community spirit through play.
  • It is estimated that competitors, family and friends, volunteers, and the general public spent approximately $5.4 million during their stay in NSW and 94% of this expenditure was in Sydney. The total organising, planning and tourism contribution of the Games is estimated at $29.7 million in value added and supported 211 FTE employees in the NSW economy.
• Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games by numbers, Minister for Innovation and Tourism Industry Development and Minister for the Commonwealth Games, The Honourable Kate Jones, Queensland Government media release, (1 May 2018). Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk has today revealed the extent of positive exposure for Queensland generated by the Games that she says will drive more visitors to the Sunshine State over the next decade An estimated 1.5 billion viewers were expected to see aspects of the Games beamed live from their home broadcasters. Digital and social media coverage was also significant. During the Games, the GC2018 website attracted around 113 million page views, of which 68 million were unique, while the various social media channels (Twitter, Facebook, Youtube and Instagram) had around 733,600 followers and more than 108.3 million impressions.
• Commonwealth Games to put the Gold Coast on the global tourism map, Tourism & Transport Forum media release, (3 April 2018). The poll, commissioned by the Tourism & Transport Forum Australia (TTF), found that Australians believe the biggest long-term benefit of the Games will be the promotion of the Gold Coast on the global stage (40 per cent), beating out improved infrastructure and services (22 per cent) and additional jobs and economic growth (14 per cent). The survey also found that when asked whether the 2018 Commonwealth Games will help promote Australia to the world, 71 per cent said yes, 11 per cent said no and 18 per cent were not sure.

• Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key trade, investment and tourism benefits identified were:
  • Hosting the Games has ‘showcased’ the host city’s culture worldwide with a TV audience of 1-1.5 billion.
  • Hosting the Games has led to increases in tourism of up to 25% in the three years after hosting, as well as trade deals agreements and investments of up to £400 million into the host city.
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key tourism and international relations impact and legacy outcomes included:
  • 680,000 people spending $1.1 billion in the local economy. Estimates GC2018 will deliver $4 billion in economic activity for Queensland.
  • GC2018 further enhanced Queensland's global reputation as a world-class event host, with a tourism legacy already under way. Tourism Events Queensland (TEQ) hosted 110 international and domestic media and athletes during GC2018 from markets including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, South East Asia and Australia. These engagements showcased Queensland's memorable visitor experiences to an audience of millions.

• Promoting active sports tourism through technology and evaluating its economic impact: experiences from Cyprus, Achilleas Achilleos, Michalis Makrominas, Christos Markides, et.al., Journal of Sport and Tourism, Volume 25(4), pp.297-315, (2021). While the economic impact of major passive sport events is well documented, the contribution of active sports events is scarcely examined. This reflective practice paper contributes towards bridging the gap by examining, in a case study, the economic impact of one of the first big active sport events in Cyprus, organised using the state-of-the-art technology. The paper presents the first commercial web platform and recommender system dedicated to active sports events, which provide all necessary services to customers and thus simplify, and ultimately increase participation in the event. We find strong evidence in support of the idea that active sport events have a strong positive impact on the local and countrywide economy, while the technology can contribute and enable further promotion and better organisation of such events.
• Challenges facing immediate tourism leveraging: evidence from the London 2012 Olympic Games, Rami Mhanna, Adam Blake, Ian Jones, Managing Sport and Leisure, Volume 22(2), pp.147-165, (2017). Models of event leveraging identify strategies that organisers can use to increase the benefits that sport events bring to host destinations. To date, little work has been conducted on leveraging immediate tourism benefits from mega sport events. In addressing this issue, we reflect and present findings related to previously identified event leveraging theories that are determined by tourists’ activities at a host destination. These are (a) enticing visitor spending and (b) lengthening visitor stay. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the use of such leveraging strategies during the London 2012 Olympic Games to increase event-related tourism. Results from 15 interviews with key stakeholders demonstrate that the effectiveness of these leveraging strategies can be limited by a number of challenges: (1) limited strategies to entice visitor spending (2) limited interest in tourism attractions (3) lack of location attractiveness (4) the displacement effect and (5) the impact of the wider economic environment. Key challenges and opportunities are detailed, a discussion on the implications for event leveraging is provided and potential areas for future research are outlined.
• Winter Olympic Games, cities, and tourism: a systematic literature review in this domain, Marilyne Gaudette, Romain Roult, Sylvain Lefebvre, Journal of Sport and Tourism, Volume 21(4), pp.287-313, (2017). Although research shows that the Games represent an opportunity for the development of the tourism industry, the scoping review showed mixed results in terms of tourist flows and the enhancement of the city’s image. The concluding remarks identify the limitations of this study and offer opportunities and areas of research regarding the next Winter Games.
• Mega-events and place branding legacy for emerging economies, Brendon Knott, Kamilla Swart, Chapter 9 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). Countries and cities are increasingly looking to sport mega-events to change or enhance their international reputation or brand image. While few would argue with the global attention these events command, assessing a definitive legacy for the place brand of the host is a more complex exercise. Similar to other legacy criticisms, questions remain around the longevity of perceived branding gains. This chapter details a number of different studies conducted to assess aspects of the place brand legacy from the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. The chapter discusses the branding opportunities that resulted from the event, the role of stakeholders in sustaining these branding gains, and the opportunities that exist for place branding legacy beyond sport mega-events, particularly for emerging place brands. Fact: Mega-events provide significant branding opportunities for cities and nations, especially within developing economies. Fairy tale: A positive branding legacy is an expected outcome from hosting a mega-event, without intentional, sustained leveraging efforts of brand stakeholders.
• Understanding Cycle Tourism Experiences at the Tour Down Under, Richard Shipway, Katherine King, Insun Sunny Lee, et.al., Journal of Sport and Tourism, Volume 20(1), pp.21-39, (2016). Sport tourism experiences are subjective and emotional, laden with symbolic meaning. This study explores the experiences of participants who adopted the multiple roles of both an active participant and event spectator, within the parameters of one chosen sporting event. A professional cycling race event, the Tour Down Under in South Australia was chosen for this investigation, and 20 face-to-face individual interviews were conducted with cycle tourists.
• What should you pay to host a party? An economic analysis of hosting sports mega-events, Heather Mitchell, Mark Fergusson Stewart, Applied Economics, Volume 47(15), pp.1550-1561, (2015). Governments all over the world put huge amounts of money into bidding for, and then hosting, sports events like Football’s World Cup or the Olympic Games. They also give money to professional sports teams and other mega-events to encourage them to locate within a particular constituency. This article examines the statistical relationship between tourism and three Football World Cups and five Olympic Games, finding very little positive effect. Given this conclusion, the article looks at why governments continue to bid for these competitions. It presents evidence that shows that these sports contests make people happy, and argues that politicians capitalise on this feel-good factor; harnessing the hubris associated with these events for political gain. The article then contends that the best way to reduce the politics associated with bidding for mega-events is to allocate them via an auction, rather than the wasteful rent-seeking methods that are currently used.

• Beijing 2022 to bring greater accessibility for persons with disabilities, Beijing 2022/paralympic.org, (25 November 2021). With 100 days to go, the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Winter Games are already delivering tangible legacies for persons with disabilities by improving accessibility in Beijing and Zhangjiakou, two of the zones that will be hosting sport next March. The CPC Beijing Municipal Committee and the People's Government of Beijing Municipality have made thousands of practical and legal changes to improve long-term accessibility for persons with disabilities in urban Beijing.
• Building a legacy: Designing sports facilities that serve communities for decades, John Hancock, Stantec, (10 December 2020). What to consider when designing infrastructure for a major sporting event—and how to make sure it flourishes afterwards.
• Building for the community is a win for the Gold Coast Games, Karine Dupré Associate Professor in Architecture, Griffith University, The Conversation, (6 April 2018). Provides an overview of the infrastructure developed for the Gold Coast Commonwealth Games, the first CG hosted by a regional city in Australia. Also notes that only two of the 13 Gold Coast venues were newly commissioned for the Games, with the majority of venues being previously established and requiring refurbishment only. The infrastructure had also been tested prior to the Games by other events, helping to ensure that they were fit for purpose, and many have also already been used by the community. Also mention of the light rail and the architectural benefits of several of the projects as examples of a well-planned, positive legacy for the Games.
• Preparations for the Olympics and Paralympics and inclusion of people with disabilities: the Australian experience. Ozdowski, Sev, Australian Human Rights Commission Speeches, (2003) This speech notes the changes made to provide accessibility and inclusion during the Sydney Olympic and Paralympic Games that will have lasting benefits for Sydney and Australia. Also, it was clear that the Paralympics as a celebration of the abilities of people with a disability had a positive impact on public attitudes to and awareness of disability issues in Australia.

• Changing the game: A critical analysis of accountability in Mega Sport Event infrastructure delivery, Engineers Against Poverty, (20 May 2021). This paper explores the meaning of accountability as an overarching value to improve the governance of MSEs and the delivery of related infrastructure. We highlight the challenges of establishing accountability mechanisms, explore the consequences that a lack of accountability can generate in addition to corruption and labour exploitation, and discuss how channels of civic engagement can help close the accountability gap. We also present recommendations that we believe are key to overcoming these challenges. including spaces for multi-stakeholder dialogue and the application of access to information laws.
• The Value of Community Sport and Active Recreation Infrastructure, KPMG for Sport and Recreation Victoria, (2020). The report is the first ever comprehensive investigation into the economic, health and social impacts of community sport and active recreation infrastructure in the state. Sport is an integral part of Victorian communities, contributing $9.2 billion to the Victoria economy and supporting more than 71,000 equivalent full-time jobs. By providing the perfect setting for communities to come together, connect, volunteer and learn, the report highlights the $2.6 billion in social benefits community sport and active recreation infrastructure delivers to the state. There are also the health benefits supported by community sport and active recreation infrastructure which include improved mental health and well-being, reduced risk of chronic illness, increased productivity is estimated at $2.3 billion. Economic benefits through construction and on-going employment include more than 13,000 full-time equivalent positions sustained through the delivery of sport and active recreation at facilities - injecting $2.1 billion into communities.
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key impact and legacy outcomes relating to facilities and infrastructure included:
  • 18 world-class venues hosting 6,600 athletes and technical officials; 7 upgraded sports venues, 3 new sports venues, 1 new multi-purpose venue; 1,252 Commonwealth Games Village apartments and townhouses for legacy rental accommodation; 7.3km light rail extension completed.
  • Sustainable sourcing implemented Games-wide; 8,660 goods and services contracts - 98% of contracts awarded to Australian businesses.
• Value of Community Sport Infrastructure, KPMG for the Australian Sports Commission, (2018). The Australian Sports Commission partnered with KPMG and La Trobe University to investigate the value of community sport infrastructure to Australia – including the value of economic, social and health benefits associated with such facilities. The report estimated that community sport infrastructure generates an annual value of more than AU$16.2billion to Australia, with AU$6.3 billion worth of economic benefit, AU$4.9 billion worth of health benefit, and AU$5.1 billion worth of social benefit.
• Planning for a Sustainable Future The legacy of sporting venues following major events, KPMG, (2015). Due to their tangible nature, and the fact that a sports event cannot take place without them, the legacy from venues is one of the most heavily debated topics when discussing the pros and cons of hosting major sporting events. In an era of intense scrutiny of the investments made by public bodies, challenging economic and fiscal environments, and unprecedented media visibility and connectivity, bidding for and hosting a major sporting event requiring the construction of a stadium, arena, velodrome, aquatic centre or race track can often be hard to justify. This is especially true when the possibility of attracting private sector investment is limited. In such a context, a clear legacy strategy for sporting venues, based on an understanding of post event market trends and thorough design and planning briefs, is of paramount importance to ensure the long term positive impact of hosting a major sporting event. After having studied recent sporting events, both successful and less so, KPMG’s Sports Advisory practice publishes this thought leadership which aims to offer insight into the venue legacy planning associated with major sporting events.
• Game on: mega-event infrastructure opportunities, Price Waterhouse Cooper, (2011). Investment in mega-event related infrastructure can impact upon economic development for three decades. In this report, the analysis focuses upon infrastructure investments and the long-term implications for the region where those investments occurred.
• Using sports infrastructure to deliver economic and social change: Lessons for London beyond 2012, Davies, L., Sheffield Hallam University, (2011). This commentary examines regeneration legacy in the context of the London Olympic Games. In particular, it focuses on the use of sports stadia as a tool for delivering economic and social change, and by drawing upon previous examples, suggesting lessons London can learn to enhance regeneration legacies beyond 2012.

• Adaptable design in Olympic construction, Laura Alexandra Brown, Manuel Cresciani, International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation, Volume 35(4), pp.397-416, (2017). In the selected case studies (Rome 1960, London 2012), adaptability has had a positive impact on the post-Games use of venues, all four of which remain in use today. However, there are multiple factors that contribute to post-Games legacy, and further research is necessary

• IPC Accessibility Guide, International Paralympic Committee, (October 2020). Inside the publication are a combination of supporting information, guidelines, recommendations, construction building codes and previous Games examples to help OCOGs and their partners deliver an inclusive sporting event. Furthermore, the document has been created with a wider audience in mind to assist similar organisers and hosts across the globe in creating a more accessible and inclusive environment. The Guide features details on a wide range of areas including accommodation, transportation, venue layout, access to information and services, along with best practices for disability and awareness training.
• Procurement of major international sport-events-related infrastructure and services: Good practices and guidelines for the Olympic movement, International Olympic Committee, (June 2020). Initial analyses conducted by the International Partnership Against Corruption in Sport (IPACS) evidenced the links between corruption and procurement inefficiencies, both responsible for putting ethical and financial pressure on sporting events. Therefore, to complement the work already done, the following paper was developed under the leadership of two founding partners of the IPACS (the International Olympic Committee, IOC, and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD). It outlines dimensions supporting the efficient procurement of major international sport-events-related infrastructure and services.

• Brisbane's 2032 'climate-positive' Olympics commitment sets high bar on delivering sustainable legacy. Ashleigh Stevenson and Brittney Kleyn, ABC News, (8 November 2021). Brisbane's 2032 Olympics will be the first Games contractually obliged to operate as "climate positive", which is part of a bid to avoid the legacies of huge debts and abandoned stadiums faced by some previous host cities. A "climate positive" Olympic Games has to offset more carbon emissions than it produces. Specific details of how Brisbane 2032 will achieve a climate positive Games are yet to be laid out. In the process of trying to achieve a 2032 climate positive Games, Brisbane itself will transform, experts say.
• Lillehammer 1994 set the stage for sustainable Games legacies. International Olympic Committee, (2014). More than 20 sustainability projects were implemented before, during and after the Games, examples include: relocating the speed skating arena in Hamar to protect a sanctuary for rare birds; designing and constructing the ice hockey venue to conserve energy; using reclaimed stone from the construction of the ski jump site in other venues; and using local construction materials. More than twenty years after the Games, venues are still available for public use and have hosted many international events.

• Study on the environmental and socio-economic impact of the FIFA Women's World Cup France 2019™, Utopies for Local Organising Committee and Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), (February 2020: Translation: March 2021). Reflecting six months of work involving numerous organisations and territories, the results of the study provide a better understanding of and make it possible to gauge the environmental impact of the competition, as well as its economic influence and net capital gain for each of the affected territories. Since evaluating its social impact is a long-term process, this is still being analysed. Some of the key environmental impacts highlighted included:
  • Most of the carbon footprint is created by the spectators: as it is a global event, emissions caused by international air travel have the biggest impact on the environment. 95%: Spectators transport, accommodation and catering 75%: due to international air travel
  • 6.4 tonnes of food waste collected and donated to local community-based associations
  • Enhanced audio-descriptive commentary systems and waste management facilities left at stadiums in Host Cities
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key impact and legacy outcomes relating to sustainabilit and the environment included:  
  • Sustainable sourcing implemented Games-wide; 8,660 goods and services contracts - 98% of contracts awarded to Australian businesses.
  • 1,252 Commonwealth Games Village apartments and townhouses built to Liveable Housing Design Gold or Silver Standard, for legacy rental accommodation.
  • Environment: 6 star and 6 leaf rated Commonwealth Games Village; zero helium balloons or lightweight plastic bags; 7 hectares of public parkland at the Commonwealth Games Village; first operational carbon baseline and management plan; 136,420 trees planted.
• Glasgow 2014 XX Commonwealth Games Post-Games Report, Commonwealth Games Federation, (2014). This report identifies a number of environmental initiatives or savings delivered by the Games.
• A carbon management program to offset vehicle emissions during the Games (i.e. including a tree planting program).
• The first smoke-free games.
• Compliance with international food procurement sustainability guidelines.
• The goal of being the ‘public transport games’ was achieved by including the cost of public transport to sporting venues into event ticket price.
• Solar energy collection panels were built into the Games village.
• The first Commonwealth Games to commission a ‘Strategic Environmental Assessment’, using a holistic approach to capture data on infrastructure development.
• All waste management practices were compliant with Euro IV standards to improve recycling and reduce landfill waste.
• Conversion of the Hampden Park facility into the Games athletics stadium, instead of building a new facility.
• Recycling furniture and office equipment (much of it from the 2012 London Olympic Games) and building materials for the Games headquarters facility.
• Making a Difference, Commission for a Sustainable London 2012, Post-Games Report, (March 2013). This final report attempts to gather evidence to understand if resources used to stage the Games are in some way compensated for by more sustainable practices inspired by, or as a direct result of, the Games. Despite some difficulties along the way, the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) and the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games (LOCOG) have both produced an excellent suite of policies that may be used in other situations, thus delivering a legacy of the 2012 Games.
• Triple bottom line assessment of the XVIII Commonwealth Games, Insight Economics, Report to the Office of Commonwealth Games Coordination, (2006). Three main environmental programs were delivered through the 2006 Commonwealth Games held in Melbourne. Under the Water Wise program, 18,000 trees were planted and four hectares of wetland were constructed; in addition to rainwater collection systems being incorporated into several Games venues. The Carbon Neutral program delivered the athlete’s village with a six-star energy rating; approximately one million trees were planted to offset greenhouse gas emissions; bicycle facilities were available at all Games venues; and fuel efficient vehicles were used for Games transport. Low Waste programs involved a number of initiatives aimed at raising awareness to minimise waste and encourage recycling; 60% of the waste from the athlete’s village was recycled. This report concluded that although it was difficult to assess whether lasting behavioural change will result from Commonwealth Games linked programs, the overall objectives of the three programs were achieved.

• Predicting climate impacts to the Olympic Games and FIFA Men’s World Cups from 2022 to 2032, Walker Ross, Madeleine Orr, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.867-888, (2022). In response to concern for climate change impacting sport competitions and legacies, and the need to consider climate adaptability in event planning, this paper uses a combination of historical weather and air quality data as well as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report to predict climactic conditions for the mega-events of the 2022 through 2032. In doing so, this paper provides a preliminary overview of environmental conditions (e.g. temperatures, air quality, precipitation) that can be used by event planners to inform contingency plans for the events and their legacies. The most immediate concerns for the mega events between 2022 and 2032 include heat conditions unsuitable for competition and poor air quality, but there may be more harmful environmental concerns for the long-term legacies of these events. It is imperative that event organizers consider creating climate-resilient events, infrastructure, and legacies that can withstand environmental threats in the future.
• The Contribution of Sport to the Sustainable Development Goals: Insights from Commonwealth Games Associations, Haydn Morgan, Anthony Bush, Darragh McGee, Journal of Sport for Development, Volume 9(2), (August 2021). The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are hailed as a common language to unite a global commitment towards a change of trajectory regarding social, economic, and environmental development issues. Although not overtly cited within the SDGs or their related targets, sport has been widely accepted and promoted as an enabler of social change and a mechanism through which to strategically map and measure commitments to sustainability. However, despite the numerous case study examples of specific sport-based programs that have demonstrated the potential of sport to contribute to the SDGs, there is limited knowledge about the currency and value that the SDGs hold for key sport stakeholders in development, and a shortage of concrete evidence to assess the uptake and integration at the level of national policy. In an attempt to address this shortage, this paper presents insights from the analysis of secondary data collected by the Commonwealth Games Federation from 62 Commonwealth Games Associations (CGAs) in relation to their perspectives on the contribution of sport to the SDGs. The paper provides examples of specific areas of strength, or those in need of further development, to present a baseline for the current state of play in understanding the contribution from individual CGAs to the SDGs.
• Environmental legacy of mega sport events, Timothy Kellison, Jonathan Casper, Chapter 7 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). Mega sporting events like the Olympic and Paralympic Games and FIFA World Cup can come at significant environmental costs due to the construction of infrastructure and sports venues and the travel of athletes and spectators. In light of this potential impact, event organisers are endeavouring to promote environmental stewardship through smart facility design, concerted educational campaigns, and a formalised long-term environmental legacy plan. In this chapter, we provide an historical summary of environmental issues related to mega-events. Additionally, we highlight several examples of sport’s largest international sporting events and compare their pre-event legacy development with post-event environmental impact analyses. We conclude the chapter by outlining the challenges that come with planning and operating a mega-event, many of which come long after the event has ended.
• The adoption and evolution of environmental practices in the Olympic Games, Walker Ross, Becca Leopkey, Managing Sport and Leisure, Volume 22(1), pp.1-18, (2017). This paper explores the evolution of environmental practices in the Olympic Movement and how they have become institutionalized within the field by using qualitative methodology consisting of content analysis of International Olympic Committee and Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games documents as well as other archival sources.
• Green Olympics, green legacies? An exploration of the environmental legacies of the Olympic Games. Shalini Samuel, Wendy Stubbs, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Volume 48(4), pp.485-504, (2013). This paper explores the legacies from the greening of the OG through an analysis of Beijing 2008, Singapore 2010, and London 2012, drawing on interviews with key stakeholders. While each OG is different, the key determinants for green legacies include: the breadth and depth of environmental commitments during the bid process; embedding sustainability in the vision, mission and branding of organizing committees; embedding sustainability in various aspects of OG organization, which is an important practical application of a sustainability vision; and the transfer of knowledge from one OG to the next, allowing newer host cities to enhance green legacies.
• The Olympic Games Impact (OGI) study for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games: strategies for evaluating sport mega-events’ contribution to sustainability. Vanwynsberghe, Robert, International Journal of Sport Policy, Volume 7(1), pp.1-18, (2015). This paper introduces three techniques for evaluating the sustainability of sport mega-events. The three techniques are bundling/leveraging, before–after control, and sustainability scorecards. This article would be of interest to future prospective Olympic host cities, researchers of mega-events and their impacts and practitioners who evaluate urban sustainability.
• Leveraging the 2010 Olympic Games ‘Sustainability’ in a City of Vancouver Initiative, VanWynsberghe R, Maurer E and Derom I, University of British Columbia, (2010). Theoretically, sustainability is likely to be a factor in future leveraging efforts because it is an increasingly strategic move in sporting mega-event bidding. ‘Sustainability’ in this context means attempting to reconcile constituents’ needs in three broad areas—economic, environmental, and social. Sustainability is also a coherent rationale that directs the public’s post-event momentum toward individual actions that enhance the community's collective well-being and prosperity. Public perceptions of ‘good’ environment practice may be one of the longest lasting legacies of hosting a major sporting event. One year before the 2010 Winter Games, the City of Vancouver announced its ambition to become the world’s ‘greenest city’ by embracing a series of citizen based actions toward environmental concerns – such as recycling initiatives, encouraging active transport (commuting by bicycle and walking), and improving curbside landscaping in residential neighbourhoods. There were also government led initiatives — such as setting a world leading green building code, creating a corporate leaders program to champion environmental issues, and requiring electric-car charging units be built into new multi-unit residential buildings. All initiatives were ‘leveraged’ by Winter Olympic hosting promotions.
• Olympic environmental concerns as a legacy of the Winter Games, Chappelet J, The International Journal of the History of Sport, Volume 25(14), pp.1884-1902, (2008). This paper explores how the ideas of environmental protection and sustainable development have been slowly incorporated into the Olympic narrative. The author shows how a set of environmental principles were developed through the experiences of local committees during the 1970s, and how the International Olympic Committee adopted them for the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympic Games and incorporated them into the Olympic ideal.

• Mitigating biodiversity impacts of sports events, International Union for Conservation of Nature, (2020). Wherever a new sports venue is built, or the refurbishment of an existing venue is undertaken, it is likely that biodiversity will be affected by that development, although the significance of impacts on biodiversity – both negative and positive – will vary enormously from sport to sport and location to location. Sports organisations, public authorities and financial institutions as well as those involved in the actual construction and decommissioning of venues all have a role to play in managing the range of impacts that sport venues may have on biodiversity. This includes implementing different measures that can be taken to mitigate any negative impacts and adopting approaches that contribute to biodiversity conservation. Moreover, with careful planning and design, new sports venues and the expansion of existing sites or temporary facilities can, in some cases, even contribute to an overall gain of biodiversity. This report offers in-depth guidance on how to integrate biodiversity considerations in the development of a new venue or a temporary facility, including five checklists covering all aspects from the early planning stage and site selection to the decommissioning.
• Sport and biodiversity, International Union for Conservation of Nature, (2018). Sport can have significant negative impacts on biodiversity, through the construction and use of sports venues and the staging of sporting events. Understanding and managing the potential negative impacts and opportunities for conservation is vital for ensuring that sports venues and sporting events deliver successfully both from the financial and operational standpoint. This guide is designed to help decision makers understand these potential impacts, and to present options for mitigating them, as well as for maximising opportunities to use sport as a way to promote and enhance biodiversity conservation.
• ISO 20121:2012 - Event sustainability management systems — Requirements with guidance for use, ISO, (last reviewed and confirmed 2017). Specifies requirements for an event sustainability management system for any type of event or event-related activity, and provides guidance on conforming to those requirements. ISO 20121:2012 is applicable to any organization that wishes to: establish, implement, maintain and improve an event sustainability management system; ensure that it is in conformity with its stated sustainable development policy; demonstrate voluntary conformity with ISO 20121:2012 by first party (self-determination and self-declaration), second party (confirmation of conformance by parties having an interest in the organization, such as clients, or by other persons on their behalf), or an independent third party (e.g. a certification body). ISO 20121:2012 has been designed to address the management of improved sustainability throughout the entire event management cycle.
  • Sustainable events with ISO 20121, ISO, (2012). A free brochure giving an overview of ISO 20121, a practical tool for managing sustainable events.

• Action & Legacy Plan, Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee, (July 2016). To promote actions that will result in positive and long lasting legacies, the Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee is working closely with various stakeholders to promote a range of comprehensive actions from the initials stages of planning in the five following pillars: Sport and Health; Urban Planning and Sustainability; Culture and Education; Economy and Technology; Recovery, Nationwide Benefits, and Global Communication.
• Sustainability policy, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (September 2017). There are many definitions of sustainability, but perhaps the most widely recognised is that given in the Brundtland Report1 - “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Based on this principle, GOLDOC is committed to addressing sustainability criteria in all of its GC2018 activities, to achieve positive economic, social and environmental outcomes. We are committed to the following governing principles of sustainable development: Inclusivity – To ensure that all interested parties are able to participate without fear of discrimination; Integrity – To conduct GC2018 in an ethical manner, consistent with international standards of behaviour; Stewardship – To take responsibility for the economic, environmental and social outcomes to be shared by all; Transparency – To communicate willingly and openly about the decisions and activities that affect the social, environmental and economic outcomes of our actions; Leadership – To demonstrate leadership by delivering GC2018 to international standards, constantly improving our ways of working and meeting all legal and other requirements. Related documents include:
  • Sustainability [website], Gold Coast 2018, (accessed 22 October 2021). As a transformational event, GC2018 presents a unique opportunity to demonstrate leadership in sustainability by delivering to international standards of best practice, leaving positive economic, environmental, social and community legacies that last beyond the Closing Ceremony.
  • Approach to Human Rights, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (August 2018). A key purpose of this document is to demonstrate GOLDOC’s commitment and approach to human rights in the planning and delivery of GC2018.
  • The Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Reconciliation Action Plan, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (November 2017). Our vision is to deliver a great Games that will recognise, respect and celebrate Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. GC2018 will leave a lasting and meaningful legacy through: employment and training; procurement; showcasing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander arts and cultures; building a culturally capable workforce and providing authentic Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural experiences for GC2018 and beyond.
  • Towards a Sustainable GC2018, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (September 2017). This sustainability framework “Towards a sustainable GC2018” was first published in 2014. Since that time, the organisation has undergone significant growth and evolution. Therefore, to ensure that GOLDOC’s approach to sustainability continues to evolve and in accordance with GOLDOC’s commitment to continual improvement, this document has been reviewed with minor updates incorporated.
• Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games Sustainability Plan, Tokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games, (2016). The Tokyo 2020 Games set five main sustainability themes, which Tokyo 2020, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, the Government of Japan and other delivery partners work on in preparations for and operations of the Games. In addition, Tokyo 2020 formulated the Tokyo 2020 Sustainable Sourcing Code as a tool to ensure sustainability throughout the supply chains of products and services Tokyo 2020 procures as well as licensed products.
• Climate Change - We will promote energy savings and use of renewable energy as much as possible "Towards Zero Carbon".
• Resource Management - Through 3R (reduce, reuse, recycle), we aim to "Zero Wasting".
• Natural Environment and Biodiversity - We will contribute to the realization of "City within Nature/Nature within the City".
• Human Rights, Labour and Fair Business Practices - We will operate the Games in accordance with the UN’s Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.
• Involvement, Cooperation and Communications (Engagement) - Through the participation and collaboration of entire society, we will create the Games which open to everyone.

• Changing the game: A critical analysis of accountability in Mega Sport Event infrastructure delivery, Engineers Against Poverty, (20 May 2021). This paper explores the meaning of accountability as an overarching value to improve the governance of MSEs and the delivery of related infrastructure. We highlight the challenges of establishing accountability mechanisms, explore the consequences that a lack of accountability can generate in addition to corruption and labour exploitation, and discuss how channels of civic engagement can help close the accountability gap. We also present recommendations that we believe are key to overcoming these challenges. including spaces for multi-stakeholder dialogue and the application of access to information laws.
• Risks to Children in relation to Mega-Sports Events, Centre for Sport and Human Rights, (September 2020). Based on the Sporting Chance White Paper 4.1 “Children’s Rights in the Sport Context” (2017), a literature review and consultations with more than 30 Partners and Stakeholders, the following were identified as risks specific to children in relation to mega sporting events.
• Recommendations for an IOC Human Rights Strategy, Independent Expert Report by Prince Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein and Rachel Davi to the International Olympic Committee, (March 2020). To build on its work to date, respond to existing human rights challenges, get ahead of emerging ones, and take account of changing stakeholder expectations, the IOC needs to clarify how it understands its responsibility for human rights. Doing so will help bring coherence to its human rights efforts, and enable it to lead the Olympic Movement’s engagement with a range of salient human rights issues for sports. We believe that the UN Guiding Principles are the logical reference point for clarifying the IOC’s responsibility and developing a strategy to put this into action. In this section we explore the key contours of this shift in understanding of responsibility and what it would mean for the IOC in practice.
• All-Party Parliamentary Group on Sport Modern Slavery and Human Rights: Interim Report, Institute for Human Rights and Business, (July 2019). The APPG has also taken a particular interest in MSEs, hearing from those companies, trade unions and NGOs involved in events such as the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, Tokyo 2020 and Qatar 2022. The conditions facing migrant workers in construction are a particular concern and the APPG has seen the value of human rights due diligence under frameworks such as the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. The APPG also heard from journalists who cover some of these events as well as a number of media companies about their responsibilities as broadcasters. This report shares some initial findings from the APPG for the UK Government and legislators. These findings are based on the evidence received in the first half of the APPG and are therefore subject to change and review.
• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. Some key impact and legacy outcomes relating to inclusion and human rights:
  • World-first commitment to delivery legacy outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; first-time gender equality in medal events for men and women; Participation in Australia's first bench-marking program designed to measure inclusion of LGBTI people in sport; accessible venues for people with accessibility requirements; largest para-sport program in Commonwealth Games history - 38 medal events and 300 para-athletes; human rights policy, demonstrating commitment to the UN Guiding Principles.
• The Mega-Sporting Event Lifecycle: Embedding Human Rights from Vision to Legacy, Mega-Sporting Events Platform for Human Rights, (April 2018). Mega-sporting events (MSE) are the pinnacle of global sport, but cannot stand apart from their very significant social impacts – both positive and negative. Sporting events can enhance freedoms and celebrate human dignity, but can also amplify discrimination and abuse. It is critical to ensure that the world of sport is in full alignment with the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UN Guiding Principles) and other international human rights and related instruments, principles, and standards. This guide presents the lifecycle of a mega-sporting event, with specific elements of good practice at each stage that those involved in hosting the event should integrate into their planning, delivery and legacy in order to ensure a rights-compliant event.

• Embedding Child Rights Principles and Practises in Mega Sport Event Planning, Oluwaseyi Aina, David McGillivray, Sandro Carnicelli, et.al., frontiers in Sports and Active Living, (September 2021). Recently, there has been growing concern about the lack of intentionality of mega sport event (MSE) organisers in ensuring that child rights are adequately respected, protected and promoted before, during, and after the events take place. In the context of the summer Olympic Games, reported child rights infringements have been on the rise, both in relation to abuse in sport itself and the negative consequences associated with planning and delivering the Games. In response to reports of child rights infringements, a coalition of actors, including non-governmental and civil society organisations have sought to pressure event owners and organisers to strengthen protections in the planning and delivery of their events. To date, however, child rights commitments have not been fully embedded in policies and principles guiding the planning and delivery of the Olympic Games. In this article, we explore the field of child rights in the context of the Olympic Games, focusing on a case study of the Tokyo 2020 edition. Findings show that while the Japanese authorities have signed up to international child rights conventions and embedded some child participation strategies in Games-related activity, there was little evidence that Tokyo 2020 organisers had developed or implemented robust policies, principles or practises to respect, protect and promote child rights in Games planning. This absence, we argue, is because there was no requirement to embed child rights commitments during the bidding or planning phases, as the IOC had yet to enshrine human rights in its host city contract when the Games were first awarded to Tokyo. We argue that it is imperative the IOC embeds child rights principles and protocols in the bidding and planning processes to ensure that the risks to children are foregrounded and acted upon by host cities and their partners, elevating human rights to a position equal to other Games requirements. This study is of international significance as the evidence will aid future host city bidders to ensure children's rights are embedded in MSE policies for each nation.
• The role of advocacy organisations for ethical mega sport events, David McGillivray, Joerg Koenigstorfer, Jason Bocarro, et.al., Sport Management Review, (31 August 2021). Non-governmental organisations have sought to enshrine progressive and ethical principles, protocols, and practices into governance arrangements for mega sport events. Evidence on whether, and how, they influence awarding bodies and events for the better, however, is scarce. Two research questions guided the present research: What role human rights advocacy organisations play at different stages of the event lifecycle? What is the nature of relationships between advocacy organisations and event awarding bodies to ensure that human rights are effectively embedded into decision-making processes? The authors conducted interviews with representatives from three advocacy organisations campaigning for human rights, two event awarding bodies and two intermediary organisations. A thematic analysis revealed four central themes: accepting responsibility for human rights; considering events as human-rights leveraging opportunity; facilitating within-coalition balance and independence of advocacy organisations; and implementing good governance and structural change. The findings contribute to the understanding of advocacy organisations within the sport event context by identifying relevant roles and relationships (including success factors and burdens on human rights).
• A conceptual model and research agenda for bidding, planning and delivering Major sport events that lever human rights, David McGillivray, Michael Edwards, Ian Brittain, et.al., Leisure Studies, Volume 38(2), pp.175-190, (2019). In this conceptual article, the authors propose a framework for how progressive human rights outcomes may be obtained in the context of bidding, planning and implementing major sport events (MSEs) through the implementation of four pathways, including good governance, the democratic participation of stakeholders, the formalisation of human rights agendas and the deployment of sensitive urban development. The authors argue that there is a need for adherence to internationally recognised standards, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights if rhetorical statements from MSE awarding bodies and host organisers are to be accountable to a wider set of actors.
• Breakthrough or much ado about nothing? FIFA’s new bidding process in the light of best practice examples of human rights assessments under UNGP Framework, Florian Kirschner, International Sports Law Journal, Volume 19, pp.133-153, (2019). The article will first identify the new requirements as result of the recent MSE and human rights discourse and embed FIFA’s approach in the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGP) Framework. The paper will then identify standards and best practice examples for HRIA under the UNGP Framework, which serve as benchmarks for the evaluation of the approach taken by FIFA and its implementation by the submitted Bid Books. While parts of the framework for the HRIA established by FIFA are quite progressive, other parts do not qualify for ‘playing in the premier league’. Areas of concern are the meaningful engagement of stakeholders, monitoring as well as aspects of transparency. Therefore, the paper suggests to mandate a multi-stakeholder entity to develop the human rights strategy, to conduct the HRIA and to monitor the human rights performance, as well as to implement of a fixed human rights evaluation matrix.
• The right to adequate housing: evictions of the homeless and the elderly caused by the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Naofumi Suzuki, Tetsuo Ogawa, Nanako Inaba, Leisure Studies, Volume 37(1), pp.59-96, (2018). The reconstruction of the National Stadium for the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in Tokyo has induced displacement of two groups of vulnerable people, raising concerns of the violation of human rights, particularly the right to adequate housing. The expansion of the stadium led to the expulsion of dozens of homeless people who lived in and around the park surrounding the stadium, and a sudden decision to demolish a nearby public housing estate built for the 1964 Summer Games forced over 200 tenants, most of whom were elderly, to be relocated. While the homeless people engaged in several rounds of negotiation with the government authorities, the majority of the housing tenants reluctantly agreed to move except for a few who kept demanding respectful treatment from the metropolitan government. Presenting the preliminary results of a mixed-method three-year qualitative study, this research note demonstrates that while the authority might have offered alternative housing considered ‘adequate’ in terms of physical living conditions, the process of evictions did not afford autonomy for the affected to choose where to live. The respective status of the affected – homeless and elderly – may demand the reconsideration of the concept of ‘adequate housing’ in relation to human dignity.
• Tapping the potential of human rights provisions in mega-sporting events’ bidding and hosting agreements, Daniela Heerdt, International Sports Law Journal, Volume 17, pp.170-185, (2018). This article explores the implications of unprecedented commitments by leading international sports organizations to include human rights principles into their bidding requirements and hosting agreements. In May 2017, UEFA communicated their updated requirements for the 2024 tournament, which now explicitly refer to human rights protection. Four months later, the 2024 and 2028 Summer Olympic Games have been awarded to Paris and Los Angeles, for which the IOC drafted host city contracts that for the first time in the history of Olympic Games include human rights clauses. In November 2017, FIFA announced the adoption of new bidding requirements for the 2026 tournament, which expressly mention the protection of human rights. The aim of this article is to examine if and how such provisions and requirements could improve access to remedy for victims of human rights violations that occurred in the course of delivering mega-sporting events. In pursuing this aim, this article sheds light on the scope and enforceability of these measures and looks into the extent to which the Court of Arbitration for Sport is equipped to deal with human rights matters.
• Understanding the denial of abuses of human rights connected to sports mega-events*, John Horne, Leisure Studies, Volume 37(1), pp.11-21, (2018). Academics debate the positive and negative consequences of hosting sports mega-events, and although there is a general recognition that doing so cannot be a panacea for solving other social issues, who wins and who loses tends to be the same. This article considers why mega-events are not more regularly resisted given the routinization of harm to local populations that they tend to invoke. It develops ideas derived from the late sociologist and criminologist Stanley Cohen concerning the relationships between, and the politics of, denial and acknowledgement, with specific attention to the role of academics, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the media. The article illustrates the difficulties in exposing, contesting and transforming these human rights abuses, but suggests that there are grounds for optimism as new strategies for communicating human rights abuses in connection with sports mega-events are developed.
• Mega-sporting events and children’s rights and interests – towards a better future, Suzanne Dowse, Sacha Powell, Mike Weed, Leisure Studies, Volume 37(1), pp.97-108, (2018). The public subsidy of Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup hosting opportunities is invariably justified on the basis that they will secure a range of public good outcomes. Problematically, the information available inspires less confidence that these ambitions will be met and highlights how social costs and benefits are unevenly distributed. As a result, interest in the social dimension of hosting has grown, yet the knowledge to support responsive and evidence-based events policy remains relatively underdeveloped, particularly in relation to the specific needs and experiences of affected communities. The impact on children as a particularly stakeholder group reflects this context of recognition and knowledge gap. For example, while it is accepted that immovable deadlines and risk of reputational consequences raise a variety of social justice concerns throughout the event lifecycle, the nature and scale of these impacts on children is poorly understood and frequently mismanaged. Findings drawn from research commissioned by Terre des Hommes International Federation which explored the intersections between children’s rights and social justice concerns highlights how such initiatives present risks and opportunities that cannot be managed effectively until children are included within associated planning processes as a specific stakeholder group with distinct needs and interests.
• Human rights and the Beijing Olympics: imagined global community and the transnational public sphere, Susan Brownell, British Journal of Sociology, Volume 63(2), pp.306-327, (June 2012). The Olympic Games are increasingly used by non-governmental organizations to demand transnational forms of accountability from public authorities. This article assesses the effectiveness of transnational public opinion surrounding the Beijing 2008 Olympics, when the pressure of Western public opinion was exerted upon the government of the world's most populous non-Western nation to improve its human rights record. Utilizing the concepts of ‘imagined global community’ and ‘transnational public sphere’, it finds that the Olympic Games had helped to call into existence a transnational public that ran up against the obstacle posed by the incomplete formation of supra-national forms of governance. The International Olympic Committee, a non-governmental organization, was a weak substitute. Because of the strong desire of Chinese people to take part in transnational deliberations, the article concludes with optimism about the potential of transnational public spheres that include Chinese people to develop toward more effective forms of transnational governance. But the IOC must strengthen the voice of its non-Western members, and Western interlocutors, including the media, must accept their share of the responsibility for creating the conditions for egalitarian dialogue.
• The Olympics as a platform for protest: a case study of the London 2012 ‘ethical’ Games and the Play Fair campaign for workers’ rights, Jill Timms, Leisure Studies, Volume 31(3), pp.355-372, (2012). The Olympic Games, with its distinctive ethos and reach, offers a valuable opportunity for those able to mobilise it as a platform for their own purposes. This paper focuses on how global social justice groups are pursuing this goal. It is argued that the types of protest utilising the Olympic platform change over time and reflect distinct historical phases of the Games. Contemporary anti-Olympic and Olympic watchdog campaigns are characterised by contestation over the prioritising of corporate interests, so contribute to wider critiques of globalising capitalism. The Play Fair campaign for the rights of workers making official Olympic merchandise and supplies exemplifies this, as it mobilises the Olympic platform to question and influence working practices within transnational supply chains. A case study of the campaign is presented, drawing on documentary analysis, interviews and participant observations undertaken since the launch of PlayFair 2012 in February 2010. It was found that by targeting London 2012 corporate discourses of ‘ethics’ and ‘sustainability’ in its campaign to ensure a ‘sweat free’ Olympics, Play Fair connects the production of major sporting events to wider issues of global inequality, poverty and structural problems in transnational labour markets.

• The Centre for Sport and Human Rights [website], (accessed 2 November 2021). Our mission is to advance a world of sport that fully respects and promotes human rights by generating awareness, building capacity and delivering impact. We pursue our mission by upholding and promoting the Sporting Chance Principles, engaging those affected and strengthening accountability through collective action in: Enabling Prevention of human rights violations linked to sport; Ensuring Remedy that is effective, accessible and available for those who experience human rights abuses; and Harnessing Opportunities to promote human rights in sport that contribute to positive impacts and benefits for all.
  • Sporting Chance Principles, (2018). The Sporting Chance Principles were developed by the Advisory Council to affirm a shared commitment to realising human rights in and through sport. All Advisory Council members endorse the Sporting Chance Principles and work individually and collectively to implement them in cooperation with other partners.
  • Games time: Planning and acting to respect human rights in mega-sporting events, (April 2020). Games Time is designed to support organisations and authorities involved in the final preparation and delivery of major sporting events in their efforts to ensure respect for international human rights standards. In the overall lifecycle of a major sporting event, the final six months (‘games time’) are critical not only to delivery of the event, but also to ensuring human rights are protected. This Guide helps organisers do this important work.
• Institute for Human Rights and Business [website], (accessed 2 November 2021). IHRB’s work exploring the human rights implications in sport began in 2012. From 2015, IHRB developed and served as secretariat for the Mega-Sporting Events Platform for Human Rights (MSE Platform), a coalition of international and intergovernmental organisations, governments, sports governing bodies, athletes, unions, sponsors, broadcasters, and civil society groups, collaborating to develop an evidence base, and supporting all actors in implementing their human rights responsibilities. This evolved over years, and led to the launch in 2018 of the independent Centre for Sport and Human Rights.
• Sport and Rights Alliance [website], (accessed 2 November 2021). Engaging directly with the IOC, FIFA, and other global sport bodies, we have played pivotal roles in landmark decisions by these organisations to adopt new policies, include human rights bidding criteria for mega-events, and host city contract clauses that embed their responsibilities to respect human rights, child rights, freedom of expression laws, labour standards, and anti-corruption measures.

• Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework, United Nations, (2011). The Human Rights Council endorsed the Guiding Principles in its resolution 17/4 of 16 June 2011. These Guiding Principles are grounded in recognition of: (a) States’ existing obligations to respect, protect and fulfil human rights and fundamental freedoms; (b) The role of business enterprises as specialized organs of society performing specialized functions, required to comply with all applicable laws and to respect human rights; (c) The need for rights and obligations to be matched to appropriate and effective remedies when breached. These Guiding Principles apply to all States and to all business enterprises, both transnational and others, regardless of their size, sector, location, ownership and structure.
  • Australia has agreed to implement the UNGPs. The UNGPs are increasingly implemented into law, policy and practice around the world. In Australia a key example is the annual modern slavery reporting requirement for large entities introduced under the Modern Slavery Act 2018 (Cth).

• Terrorism and the Olympics: Background Report, START: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, (July 2012). START has compiled a background report on the history of terrorism and the Olympics from 1970-2012. It reviews terrorist attacks that have taken place during the Olympic Games in the host country, as well as those indirectly related to the Olympic Games and similar major sporting events. Bearing in mind that the heightened profile of these events might increase the likelihood of a terrorist attack while the heightened security and surveillance might decrease the likelihood of an attack, the report discusses general patterns of terrorism in Olympic host countries at the time of the Games, compared to the same time period the previous year

• Special Issue: Terrorism and Sport: A Global Perspective. American Behavioral Scientist, Volume 60(9), (August 2016). The articles in this volume offer insights on the intersection of terrorism and sports, by presenting a wide, diverse picture of this phenomenon. The six articles explore this topic from a variety of perspectives, including security, sociology, media and public relations, and the political, ideological, and psychological aspects of sport and terror.
• Growing Terrorism Challenge for Sports Events, G4S Risk Consulting, (March 2016). Provides an overview of sport and terror attacks including the 2015 Stade de France suicide bombings and the challenges facing security organisations in mitigating the risk of future terrorist events.
• Terrorism and Security at the Olympics: Empirical Trends and Evolving Research Agendas. Spaaij R, The International Journal of the History of Sport, Volume 33(4), pp.451-468, (2016). This paper provides an empirical analysis of Olympic-related terrorism in the period 1968–2014 and suggests the need to bring state terrorism into the analysis of terrorism at the Olympics. Additionally, draws attention to both intended and unanticipated security legacies of the Olympics, including the wider social implications of Olympic security operations.
• Surveillance and securitization: A forgotten Sydney Olympic legacy, Toohey, K., & Taylor, T., International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Volume 47(3), pp.324-337, (2012). Uses the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, the last Olympic Games held before 9/11, as a case study to examine how Olympic security measures were implemented before and during the Games and how some of these have remained as an Olympic legacy in the post-9/11 era.

Australian Federal Legislation

• Criminal Code Act 1995
• Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002
• Major Sporting Events (Indicia and Images) Protection Rules 2014
• Olympic Insignia Protection Regulations 1993

Frameworks and Guidelines

• Australian National Security website. The Australian government's portal on national security. Includes agencies, legislation, list of terrorist groups, assessments and travel warnings. Guidelines available to download from the Publications area include:
  • National guidelines for the protection of critical infrastructure from terrorism (September 2015).
  • Australia's strategy for protecting crowded places from terrorism, (August 2017).
  • Active Armed Offender Guidelines for Crowded Places (2017)
  • Improvised Explosive Device Guidelines for Places of Mass Gathering (2017).

Standards

• ISO/DIS 22379 - Security and resilience — Guidelines for hosting and organizing citywide or regional events, ISO, (25 November 2019). World-class events such as the Olympic Games can help put cities or regions on the map, all the while attracting valuable visitor revenue and economic investment. They do, however, bring many security risks. A new International Standard is currently being developed to help cities manage big events with public safety and security at their heart. ISO 22379, Security and resilience – Guidelines for hosting and organizing large citywide events, aims to provide guidelines and expertise on how to manage risks, public safety and service continuity during a wide-scale event. When published, it will be the first International Standard of its kind, bringing together the knowledge and know-how of experts involved in hosting major events such as the Tokyo Olympics 2020, the Winter Olympics in Beijing in 2022, the Berlin Marathon, and many more. It will also help cities decide whether to hold the event or not, as it enables them to identify the real risks and costs that will be involved.
  • Voting on the draft ISO 22379, Security and resilience – Guidelines for hosting and organizing large citywide events began on 13 September 2021, and is due to finish on 6 December 2021.

• London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Safety and Security Strategy, UK Home Office, (March 2011). This document, first published in July 2009, set out the vision, aim, and objectives for a single Olympic and Paralympic Safety and Security Strategy for the Government, the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (LOCOG), the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), the police service, and all other key delivery agencies.

• Play for all: Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Nicola Alcorn, Deloitte, (8 February 2019). Invictus Games Sydney 2018 welcomed 491 competitors and over 1000 of their family and friends from 18 participating nations for 8 days of competition. The celebration of strength and recovery inspired many, and amassed 1000 avid volunteers for the event. The events were held in Sydney Harbour and at Sydney Olympic Park, enabling community participation and driving community spirit through play.
  • In the five major Australian capital cities alone, around four million people viewed the ABC coverage between 20–27 October while 105,000 attended the Games in person.

• Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland.
• Invictus Games Sydney 2018 - Game On Down Under Event Review, Australian International Military Games Limited, (2018). This report is a snapshot of the highlights of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018. It revisits some of the most inspiring moments and provides an analytical and data based overview of what we accomplished. Some key numbers included: 491 competitors from 18 nations; 1263 volunteers; 105,000 spectators; 10,000+ primary and secondary students attended; 16 assistance dogs. Some key outcomes included:
  • There was a 36% increase in the number of Australians aware of the Invictus Games in the 23 months from December 2016.
  • More than 8.7 million Australian adults followed the Invictus Games Sydney 2018 in some way: 39% followed on TV; 11% followed online and through social media.
  • The number of adults who would consider purchasing a product from a sponsor who supported Invictus Game Sydney 2018 more than doubled.
  • Coverage extended across ABC’s TV channels, news network, extensive regional and metro radio networks and owned and third party digital. There were 105,000 spectators; 150+ hours coverage (ABC, BBC, CTV, TSN, SkyNZ, TVR, STB); 25.7M+ viewership.
• Glasgow 2014 XX Commonwealth Games Post-Games Report, Commonwealth Games Federation, (2014). This report identifies a number of environmental initiatives or savings delivered by the Games.
  • The Games was delivered on time and within its £575.6 million budget.
  • Glasgow 2014 was mentioned well over a million times on social networks during the 11 days of Games Time.
  • Viewers around the world were able to watch live Commonwealth Games events for the first time online, via the Glasgow 2014 YouTube channel.
  • The Host Broadcaster provided a multi-channel service comprising six channels of ready-made material with overrunning commentary – a first for the Commonwealth Games. It also produced the Games Channel, which ran from the start of the first significant action each day until the end of the last live competition, followed by a highlights programme.
  • more than 600,000 unique visitors to Scotland’s largest ever sporting and cultural festival between 23 July and 3 August 2014.
  • Glasgow 2014 contributed towards a healthy economy. Scottish companies won 68 per cent of Tier 1 Games related contracts, worth £290 million. Twenty-five per cent of winning businesses were Glasgow-based.
  • The largest ever peacetime volunteer recruitment drive saw 50,811 applications become approximately 12,500 amazing clyde-siders, and the lowest ever volunteering age cut-off for a major sporting event meant that 16-year-olds could take part.
  • The event delivered a lasting impact. The multi-award winning Athletes’ Village, built in consultation with athletes, will be converted into Scotland’s first large-scale sustainable housing development as part of an ambitious east end regeneration plan.
  • EY’s Attractiveness Survey has shown that the country is set to benefit from the ‘halo effect’, where Scotland’s increased profile from these large-scale sporting events will boost potential opportunities for inward investment. The Games has already helped Scotland secure 37 further high profile national and international events, with an estimated economic impact of £14 million.

• ‘Masters of your fate and the captains of your soul’: media representations of the 2018 Invictus Games, Peter English, Bridie Kean, Simone Pearce, et.al., Sport in Society, Volume 24(7), pp.1217-1232, (2021). The Invictus Games was established by Prince Harry in London in 2014 and Sydney hosted the fourth version in 2018. Due to the profile of Prince Harry and the growth of the Games, the media has played a major role in delivering news and information about the event and its competitors, as well as highlighting broader themes of rehabilitation and inclusion. This descriptive study investigates the media coverage of the 2018 Invictus Games to identify key narratives underpinning the representations of the event. This paper employs a quantitative and qualitative content analysis to examine similarities and differences in reporting from four Australian media organisations across print, online and television. The findings are based on the examination of 176 articles and more than eight hours of television and multimedia content. The results highlight a greater focus on the event, as well as celebrity and entertainment elements, than those who were competing.
• The primacy of sports television: Olympic media, social networking services, and multi-screen viewing during the Rio 2016 games, Brett Hutchins, Jimmy Sanderson, Media International Australia, (11 May 2017). Using the 2016 summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, as a case study, this article examines the intersections between (1) broadcast television coverage of the Games, (2) digital live streaming of Olympic events via desktop computing and mobile apps, and (3) the social networking services, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat. It is argued that broadcast television anchors the flow of content across screens, with social networking services both extending the televisual logics of media sports coverage and emphasizing their own commercial influence and command of massive user numbers. This arrangement ultimately bolsters the power of television as the primary means through which sports mega-events are experienced.
• Sport mega-events and the media, Kamilla Swart, Michael Linley, Gift Muresherwa, Chapter 15 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). This chapter presents case studies of media analyses conducted on both the 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, using a similar methodology, as illustrative cases within the developing context. It aimed to provide insight into South Africa and Brazil, as destination brands, had been profiled through the media over four periods and in relation to the imperatives established in the hosting of the respective World Cups. A qualitative analysis was undertaken using Leximancer to evaluate the content of media coverage in four key markets for each country. Several important findings are highlighted to showcase evidence that both supports and refutes the media legacy of both World Cups.